Making causal judgments from the proportion of confirming instances: The pCI rule.

It is proposed that causal judgments about contingency information are derived from the proportion of confirmatory instances (pCI) that are evaluated as confirmatory for the causal candidate. In 6 experiments, pCI values were manipulated independently of objective contingencies assessed by the ΔP rule. Significant effects of the pCI manipulations were found in all cases, but causal judgments did not vary significantly with objective contingencies when pCI was held constant. The experiments used a variety of stimulus presentation procedures and different dependent measures. The power PC theory, a weighted version of the ΔP rule, the Rescorla-Wagner associative learning model (R. A. Rescorla & A. R. Wagner, 1972), and the ΔD rule, which is the frequency-based version of the pCI rule, were unable to account for the significant effects of the pCI manipulations. These results are consistent with a general explanatory approach to causal judgment involving the evaluation of evidence and updating of beliefs with regard to causal hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonconscious acquisition of information.

Reviews and summarizes evidence for the process of acquisition of information outside of conscious awareness (covariations, nonconscious indirect and interactive inferences, self-perpetuation of procedural knowledge). Data indicate that, as compared with consciously controlled cognition, the nonconscious information-acquisition processes are not only much faster but are also structurally more sophisticated, in that they are capable of efficient processing of multidimensional and interactive relations between variables. Those mechanisms of nonconscious acquisition of information provide a major channel for the development of procedural knowledge that is indispensable for such important aspects of cognitive functioning as encoding and interpretation of stimuli and the triggering of emotional reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual effects on the calibration of probabilistic judgments.

24 practicing auditors employed by public accounting firms participated in a study to determine the extent to which contextual factors affect the calibration of their subjective prior probability distributions (PPDs). Probabilistic responses to general-knowledge (almanac) questions were analyzed and compared to responses obtained in a previous study by the present 3rd author et al (see record 1983-07156-001), which used the same type of Ss and methods in a substantive audit judgment context. Results indicate that Ss' judgments in the general-knowledge task context were miscalibrated and significantly overconfident, whereas their judgments in the substantive audit task context were less miscalibrated and predominantly underconfident. Findings suggest that calibration research results may not be generalizable across applied judgment–decision contexts. Implications for practical applications of Bayesian decision models, improvement of preexperimental training methods, and the effects of incentives on miscalibration are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Context effects in judgments of causation.

It is hypothesized that causal explanations for an occurrence vary as a function of the causal background against which the occurrence is considered. Three experiments are presented that test propositions regarding the operation of the causal background in the selection of causal explanations. Findings indicate that factors previously shown to affect subjects' attributions—specifically, role (actor vs. observer), covariation information (consensus and distinctiveness), and quality of performance (positive vs. negative)—may do so by guiding subjects' selection of a causal background. Evidence indicates that these factors may not have the predicted effect on subjects' attributions when competing cues, such as context or wording of the causal question, suggest the relevance of conflicting causal backgrounds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Category representations and the effects of interacting with instances.

People often classify new instances and then interact with or use them. Seven experiments showed that such interactions can affect the representation of the category. Equation categories, determined by both surface and mathematical properties, were used. In Experiments 1A and 1B, subjects solving the equations after classifying them were more likely to use the mathematical properties in later classifications than were subjects who had simply learned to classify. In Experiments 2A and 2B, different interactions led to very different classifications of test equations. Experiments 3–5 showed that such interactions affect category formation and graded structure, but do not lead to the solution group having worse memory for the surface contents. The discussion focuses on how these interactions may affect category representations and on the implications of this work for classification theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Order effects on children's moral and achievement judgments.

24 kindergartners were presented with 24 stories varying in the actor's intent, the outcome of the actor's behavior, and the competitiveness of the situation (noncompetitive/moral vs competitive/achievement dilemmas). Ss evaluated the actor by administering rewards or punishments in each of the stories on an 11-point graphic scale. Reversing the order of the stimulus cues increased the relative importance of outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intensities of punishment upon children's subsequent moral judgments of behavior.

Administered either high or low punishments in the form of candy removal to 24 1st and 2nd graders ostensibly for their performance on a keypressing task. Punishment was actually presented according to a preprogrammed schedule independent of the S's responding. Interspersed with these trials, stories were told about children who resisted temptations, and the Ss assigned rewards or punishments to these characters. Following high punishment, the Ss punished the characters less frequently and intensely than after low punishment. Since modeling and reward-deservedness explanations are untenable in this study, the results are interpreted in terms of image improvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related priming effects in social judgments.

Two experiments investigated adult age differences in the impact of previously activated (and thus easily accessible) trait-related information on judgments about people. The authors hypothesized that age-related declines in the efficiency of controlled processing mechanisms during adulthood would be associated with increased susceptibility to judgment biases associated with such information. In each study, different-aged adults made impression judgments about a target, and assimilation of these judgments to trait constructs activated in a previous, unrelated task were examined. Consistent with the authors' hypotheses, older adults were likely to form impressions that were biased toward the primed trait constructs. In contrast, younger adults exhibited greater awareness of the primed information and were more likely to correct for its perceived influence, especially when distinctive contextual cues regarding the source of the primes were available. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anchoring effects in sequential clinical judgments.

To clarify further the nature of assimilation and contrast effects, serial judgments of clinical stimuli were studied using a 4-phase alternation of anchor design. Judgments of pathology of equivalent moderate clinical stimuli across the sequence of anchor contexts were made by 176 Ss. 2 types of behavior were judged, aggression and dependency. The results indicated significant anchoring effects on 3 of the 4 phases. Contrast on the initial phase was followed by a trend toward assimilation on the succeeding phases. It is concluded that assimilation effects using alternated anchors may be facilitated by the limited capacity of judges to discriminate clinical stimuli and by perceptual grouping effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial position effects in comparative judgments.

Three studies examined the ubiquity of the bowed serial position effect in comparative judgments: the tendency for pairs of extreme magnitude to be discriminated more readily than pairs of intermediate magnitude. Although prior research has demonstrated that this effect occurs quite regularly in finite set experiments that repeatedly present a small number of items, there has been some ambiguity about the robustness of the bowed serial position effect in infinite set experiments, in which items are never repeated. Based on the extensive norms collected in Experiment 1, Experiment 2 demonstrated that a bowed serial position effect does in fact occur in a large infinite set experiment. The results of Experiment 3 indicate that this bowed serial position effect is not an artifact of our norms. The results are consistent with models that emphasize categorization of magnitudes and inconsistent with models that emphasize positional discriminability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple congruity effects in judgments of magnitude.

Four experiments investigated a novel finding in the area of symbolic magnitude comparisons: Congruity effects may occur with subsets of objects. Such multiple congruity effects appear to signal the creation of size-ordered categories. Exp 1 observed separate congruity effects for large and small pairs despite the intermingling of pairs within a session. Exp 2 determined whether this result was an artifact of the items used. Exps 3 and 4 examined whether linear separability on a dimension of size or on some other correlated dimension was a prerequisite for multiple size-ordered categorization. The results of these experiments suggest that congruity effects are properly regarded as indicating the presence of an organized structure or category. Thus, to the extent that congruity effects typify magnitude comparisons, the processing of relational information appears to implicate categorization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of a narrative model on children's moral judgments.

Tested the hypothesis that children's moral orientation can be influenced by exposure to narrated models that express consistent moral judgments based on either the consequences of an action or the motives of the individual. 66 1st and 2nd graders were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: objective model (judgments based on consequences), subjective model (judgments based on motives), or no model, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Following the procedure of Piaget and others, a pretest presented all Ss with pairs of stories contrasting a well-intentioned act involving serious consequences with an ill-intentioned act involving minor consequences. In the experimental phase which followed the pretest by 2 wks, Ss were exposed to narrative characters who made consistent moral judgments. A posttest conducted by another E followed immediately. Results indicate that the objective model condition significantly increased responding based on consequences, and the subjective model condition significantly increased responding on motives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects on opinions of a change in scale judgments.

"If a person with a moderately pro position accepts items extending from neutral to strongly pro… a change limited to his perception of the moderately con items, in which they come to appear extremely con, should not affect his expressed position. But a change that makes the moderately con items appear less extreme or even neutral in his perception may incline him to agree with them." The study tested the effects of such a change in judgments on expressed opinion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Composite production effects on subsequent facial recognition.

Examined the effects of constructing an Identi-kit composite of a target face on subsequent recognition of that face. 128 college students saw the target face (White male) for 4 or 15 sec, produced a composite, and then attempted to recognize the target in a series of 130 facial photographs. The target face appeared once, as the 125th slide in the series of 130. In some conditions, a delay of 2 days was introduced either between exposure and composite production or between production and recognition. Compared with controls, recognition for all conditions was better after composite production (hit rates of 60% and 90%, respectively). The longer exposure resulted in slightly better recognition. The 2-day delay had no effect. Another condition in which Ss verbally described the face led to recognition levels between those of the control and the composite-production conditions. Results point to retrieval mechanisms as the source of improved recognition. It is concluded that law enforcement procedures might benefit from construction techniques for improving recognition by eyewitnesses. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of a communication on attitude change and scale judgments.

"The purposes of this study were to assess the effects of a persuasive communication on attitude change and on judgments of the scale values of opinion items and to examine the relationship between attitude change and evaluations of the communication. An experimental group of subjects was exposed to a communication advocating abolution of capital punishment, after which they evaluated the communication, judged the scale values of 36 opinion statements, and revealed their own attitudes by responding to 20 opinion items… . The major results are: The communication changed attitudes in the direction advocated. But the groups were alike in their judgments of the scale values of the related opinion statements. Hence, a change in scale judgments is not a necessary condition for attitude change." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3GD33W. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of training domain and age on children's moral judgments.

69 1st, 3rd, and 5th graders were (a) read stories depicting either good (nice) or bad (naughty) acts paired with neutral acts, (b) trained to consider intentions rather than consequences while making moral judgments, and (c) tested for their use of intentions in both moral judgment domains (niceness and naughtiness). Results support the hypotheses that (a) training would be effective in both domains, (b) cross-domain generalization of training would occur, and (c) Ss would judge bad behavior on the basis of intentions and independently of consequences before they would do so for good behavior. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)