湿式烘焙技术研究进展

湿式烘焙是指180~260℃下在过热水中进行生物质预处理的技术，因其适用范围广、能耗低、预处理效果显著等优势，受到了广泛关注，但也因其发展尚处于起步阶段，存在诸多问题。文中综述了湿式烘焙技术的定义、反应机理及其优点，重点关注湿式烘焙固体产物物理化学特性的变化（最优条件下，产物质量密度升高33.2%，能量密度升高48.2%，研磨能耗降低25.6倍，平衡含水率降低2.9倍，球团耐久性升高33.0%，热值升高45.1%，燃点升高67℃）。讨论了湿式烘焙反应条件对于处理效果的影响，探究了湿式烘焙条件和燃料性能之间的内在联系，对生物质燃料湿式烘焙预处理及工艺耦合应用进行了全面概述，对湿式烘焙技术的经济可行性进行了综合分析。最后，明晰了湿式烘焙技术的缺陷及相应的应对措施，并对其未来的应用场景进行了分析展望，为提高湿式烘焙技术环境友好性和经济可行性提供一些理论基础。     

生物质烘焙处理的能量平衡分析

基于烘焙过程分析,建立了生物质烘焙处理的能量平衡计算方法,结合固定床烘焙实验结果,研究了烘焙温度和保温时间对杨树枝烘焙特性、烘焙所需热及3种烘焙产物能量分布的影响,探讨了杨树枝烘焙处理的能量平衡. 结果表明,烘焙温度是影响生物炭得率、热值和能量分布的主要因素,随烘焙温度提高,杨树枝炭得率显著降低,液体产物和气体产物逐渐增加,杨树枝炭和不凝气体产物的热值显著增加,而液体产物热值变化不大. 烘焙产物中,杨树枝炭的能量显著高于液体和气体的能量. 随烘焙温度升高,杨树枝烘焙的能量平衡率先快速升高后趋于平稳,在温度225℃、保温时间30 min的条件下,烘焙可获得64.0%的杨树枝炭,能量平衡率约为2.5,烘焙所得液体和气体产物的燃烧热完全能满足杨树枝烘焙能量自给的需要.     

烘焙预处理对玉米秸秆磷酸法活性炭制备及性能影响

以玉米秸秆为原料,研究烘焙预处理对磷酸法活性炭的制备及性能影响。研究结果表明：烘焙预处理使玉米秸秆碳元素含量和固定碳含量增加而挥发分含量降低,增加热解焦炭质量,且烘焙温度影响强于烘焙时间。烘焙处理使玉米秸秆活性炭比表面积先增加后减小,总孔容和中孔率减小,而微孔率显著增加。烘焙预处理有助于提高活性炭吸附性能,当100 g粒径为154～450μm玉米秸秆颗粒经烘焙预处理,预处理条件为烘焙温度240℃、烘焙时间60 min时,预处理后的玉米秸秆含C 51.32%,固定碳27.64%,灰分4.72%。采用磷酸活化法将预处理后的玉米秸秆制备成活性炭,制备条件为浸渍比1∶4(玉米秸秆与55%磷酸溶液的质量比),浸渍温度140℃,浸渍时间90 min,活化温度400℃,活化时间60 min,此条件下制备的玉米秸秆活性炭比表面积达1 317.05 m²/g,碘吸附值、亚甲基蓝吸附值和焦糖脱色率分别为876 mg/g、 210 mg/g和100%。     

烘焙对生物质理化特性影响综述与秸秆烘焙研究前景分析

通过文献综述,研究了烘焙对生物质燃料特性与热解特性的影响。烘焙可有效提升生物质燃料性能,主要体现在含水率、固定碳含量、能量密度和疏水性等指标的改善。烘焙预处理对热解产物的分布及其特性具有明显影响,热解炭产率增加,热解液体产物中酸类和水分含量减少,酚类和酮类含量增加,热解气中一氧化碳、二氧化碳含量降低,甲烷和氢气含量提高,热解气品质提高。进一步研究烘焙预处理对秸秆热解物质流和能量流的影响,综合评价烘焙预处理的经济成本、能源成本、环境成本等要素,研究烘焙预处理对秸秆热解应用的可行性,有助于秸秆烘焙预处理技术推广。该研究可为秸秆烘焙技术研究与应用提供参考。     

烘焙稻壳与不同煤化程度的煤共热解特性

稻壳在250 ℃/30 min条件下烘焙后,与无烟煤、烟煤和褐煤3种不同煤化程度煤进行不同比例的混合,混合物分别进行热重分析和高温共热解特性研究。结果表明：热重分析中,添加烘焙稻壳有利于提高无烟煤和烟煤的转化率,其提高率低于5%,但是不利于提高褐煤的转化率;高温共热解实验中,随着烘焙稻壳添加比例的提高,无烟煤和烟煤与烘焙稻壳共热解固体产物减少,气体产物增加,而褐煤与烘焙稻壳共热解固体产量增加,气体产量略有下降;烘焙稻壳的添加有利于共热解产气中H2组分的增加和CO2组分的减少,通过改变烘焙稻壳在混合物中的比例可以对共热解气体组分进行调节。     

低温烘焙提质对褐煤着火燃烧特性的影响

褐煤高水分和高挥发分不利于运输和储存，且会降低锅炉燃烧效率，低温烘焙提质作为一种褐煤提质常用技术，能有效降低燃料中水分并提升燃料品质，显著改变褐煤燃烧特性。为研究低温烘焙提质对褐煤着火特性的影响，利用平面火焰燃烧系统并结合CMOS相机研究了不同热协流温度(1 473、1 673和1 873 K)和O₂体积分数(5%、10%和20%)下低温烘焙预处理(200、250和300℃)对褐煤着火燃烧特性的影响，并分析低温烘焙提质对着火延迟距离和火焰亮度的影响。结果表明，经低温烘焙预处理的褐煤颗粒在相同热协流温度和O₂浓度条件下的着火延迟距离稍大于原始褐煤颗粒；O₂体积分数为5%时，200℃烘焙褐煤的着火延迟距离在热协流温度1 473、1 673和1 873 K时较原始褐煤颗粒分别增加了0.24、0.28和0.13 cm;此外，不同烘焙温度下煤粉颗粒的着火位置较褐煤均有所延迟，且升高烘焙温度会降低褐煤着火距离，在1 673 K、O₂体积分数5%下，烘焙温度200、250和300℃时对应的着火延迟距离较褐煤的增加...     

基于微波湿烘焙畜粪生物质提质研究

采用微波湿烘焙方法,对马粪进行烘焙预处理,考察了反应溶剂和烘焙温度对马粪组成、热降解特性、高位热值、能量产率及形貌特性的影响。结果表明,马粪的固定碳含量和高位热值随温度升高而增长,能量产率随温度升高而降低。与原料相比,在200℃时,水溶剂中所得烘焙马粪的固定碳含量大幅增长,O/C比减小28.00%,高位热值增长21.07%,能量产率保留74.30%。与原料相比,水和琥珀酸溶剂中所得烘焙马粪仍存在较多的灰分含量,硫酸溶剂能减少形成灰分的金属元素含量,使马粪灰分含量减少50.00%。微波湿烘焙降低了马粪的热解反应性,并提高其燃烧反应性。水溶剂中所得烘焙马粪,其表面的孔隙结构更清晰。研究显示,微波湿法烘焙可对马粪提质,200℃是本实验的最佳反应温度,恒温200℃时,水比稀酸更适合作为反应溶剂。     

烘焙中药渣的热解与燃烧特性及其动力学分析

中药废渣经过烘焙后是一种具有应用潜力的固体燃料。采用热重分析仪对烘焙中药渣的热解及燃烧特性进行了研究,利用Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS)法及Coats-Redfern法对热解及燃烧的动力学进行求解,评估了烘焙中药渣的燃烧特性。研究发现烘焙中药渣的热分解分为2个阶段,第一阶段的活化能为76.1～94.0 kJ/mol,第二阶段的活化能为26.8～38.8 kJ/mol。烘焙中药渣的燃烧分为3段反应过程,第一阶段主要是挥发分的析出及燃烧,活化能为80.5～97.3 kJ/mol;第二阶段属于挥发分及部分焦炭的燃烧,活化能为18.3～28.5 kJ/mol;第三阶段的主要反应为残余焦炭的燃烧,活化能为41.8～50.6 kJ/mol。不同烘焙条件下制得的中药渣都较易着火燃烧,着火温度在280.3～294.8℃。经O_2烘焙的中药渣前期可燃性以及综合燃烧特性最好,最易燃尽,表明燃烧烟气烘焙中药渣是可行的。     

烟气烘焙对玉米秆可磨性的影响规律研究

可磨性是生物质在现有燃煤机组规模化燃烧利用中必须考虑的问题之一。本文基于固定床反应器对玉米秆进行烘焙预处理,针对生物质单烧和与煤混烧两种技术路线,利用臼式研磨仪、全自动粒径筛分仪、纤维素分析仪和傅里叶红外光谱,研究了不同烘焙气氛、温度对燃料可磨性的影响。结果表明,相比于氮气,烟气能够在更低的烘焙温度下使玉米秆可磨性提升至接近于典型动力用煤,主要是由于烟气中的氧化性组分促进了纤维素、半纤维素的分解。当共磨时,煤颗粒表现出助磨的作用提升了玉米秆的可磨性,在较高温度或烟气烘焙条件下,混样的可磨性近似甚至优于煤。     

微波烘焙预处理降解玉米秸秆

用微波可高效对生物质烘焙预处理,考察了不同微波烘焙过程对玉米秸秆主要组分的降解作用及酸、碱、甘油催化剂对纤维素转化效率的影响,并对预处理的玉米秸秆进行酶解实验。结果表明,单纯的微波预处理对玉米秸秆中主要组分纤维素、半纤维素和木质素均有强烈的转化作用。无催化剂微波烘焙后,样品中纤维素含量降低了30%。在微波烘焙中添加酸、碱、甘油催化剂,可选择性降解玉米秸秆中的半纤维素或木质素,有效提高预处理后玉米秸秆中的纤维素含量,添加NaOH后纤维素含量增加最明显,由33%增至42%,纤维素最高转化率达65%。     

Effects of soybean pretreatments on crude oil quality

The effects of soybean pretreatments, including infrared (IR) radiation, oven toasting, microwave heating and live steam treatment on crude oil quality were investigated. Free fatty acid, oxidation value, carbonyl value and tocopherol content were used to monitor crude soybean oil quality. All soybean pretreatments were effective in improving the quality of oils from 15 and 18% moisture beans. Based on the analyses, recommended treatments are 3–4 min for IR at 220V–250W; 1 min for microwave heating at 650 W–2450 mHz; 1–1.5 min for steam heating; and 100–120°C, 30 min for oven toasting. Heat treatment of high-moisture soybeans before extraction yielded crude oil with a lower content of phosphatidic acid as compared to that of the untreated beans.     

Effects of Toasting Time on Digestive Hydrolysis of Soluble and Insoluble 00-Rapeseed Meal Proteins

Thermal damage to proteins can reduce their nutritional value. The effects of toasting time on the kinetics of hydrolysis, the resulting molecular weight distribution of 00‐rapeseed meal (RSM) and the soluble and insoluble protein fractions separated from the RSM were studied. Hydrolysis was performed with pancreatic proteases to represent in vitro protein digestibility. Increasing the toasting time of RSM linearly decreased the rate of protein hydrolysis of RSM and the insoluble protein fractions. The extent of hydrolysis was, on average, 44% higher for the insoluble compared with the soluble protein fraction. In contrast, the rate of protein hydrolysis of the soluble protein fraction was 3–9‐fold higher than that of the insoluble protein fraction. The rate of hydrolysis of the insoluble protein fraction linearly decreased by more than 60% when comparing the untoasted to the 120 min toasted RSM. Increasing the toasting time elicited the formation of Maillard reaction products (furosine, N^ε‐carboxymethyl‐lysine and N^ε‐carboxyethyl‐lysine) and disulfide bonds in the insoluble protein fraction, which is proposed to explain the reduction in the hydrolysis rate of this fraction. Overall, longer toasting times increased the size of the peptides resulting after hydrolysis of the RSM and the insoluble protein fraction. The hydrolysis kinetics of the soluble and insoluble protein fractions and the proportion of soluble:insoluble proteins in the RSM explain the reduction in the rate of protein hydrolysis observed in the RSM with increasing toasting time.     

Use of mesquite cotyledon (Prosopis chilensis (Mol) Shuntz) in the manufacturing of cereal bars

Cereal bars with peanut and walnut has shown to be snack foods of good organoleptic characteristics and high caloric value, due to their content of protein, lipids and carbohydrates. Cotyledons of mezquite seeds have a high protein content which biological quality improves with thermal processing like toasting, microwave or moist heat under pressure. The purposes of this research were to study the use of mezquite cotyledon (Prosopis chilensis (Mol) Stuntz) in cereal bars with two different levels of peanut or walnut; and to determine the effect of two thermal treatment applied on the cotyledon upon the bar characteristics. Twelve different kind of bars were developed through the combination of two levels of peanut or walnut (15% and 18%); the use of mezquite cotyledon (0% and 6%); and the application of two thermal processing to the cotyledon (microwave and toasting). Cereal bars were analysed for chemical, physical and sensory characteristics: moisture, water activity, proximate chemical composition, sensory quality and acceptability. Moisture content of bars with peanut ranged between 10.4% and 10.9%; and for those with walnut, between 10.5% and 12.3%. Protein content was higher in the bars with mezquite cotiledon, being higher those with peanut. Thermal processing did not have any effect on the chemical composition. Bars with mezquite cotyledon treated by microwave showed a higher acceptability.     

Effect of heat treatment and milling on the seed, flour, rheology and baking quality of some amaranth ecotypes

Forty-five harvests corresponding to the two predominating domestic species of amaranth in Mexico were studied. The proximate analysis revealed some statistically significant differences throughout three years of observation. The Ca, P and Fe content did not vary greatly in 15 samples. No chemical differences were either manifested in the Mercado and Aztec types of A. hypochondriacus, nor in the Mexican type of A. cruentus. The latter exhibits a higher grain yield and a shorter life cycle; however, its baking quality is apparently inferior to that of the Mercado type of A. hypochondriacus. The heat treatment of the seeds (toasting, popping and cooking) affected protein and lysine contents as does in cereals and leguminous seeds although toasting in particular improves its sensory characteristics without altering digestibility and PER. Popping only improves PER. Heating at 90 or 170 degrees C for three to five minutes, at the usual seed's moisture rate of 6 to 15%, does not affect protein content and does so only slightly in the case of the fatty acids content. Amylographic and farinographic values of the starchy fractions indicate similarities to C. quinoa and differences with respect to wheat. In the case of "amaranth milk", viscosity and gelatinization temperature produced satisfactory values. The extension of amaranth cultivation in the country is hereby suggested in view of the seed's nutritional quality, and considering the behavior of whole amaranth flour and its fractions.     

Critical processing factors in desolventizing-toasting soybean meal for feed

Even though it is well established that both underheated and overheated meals are of inferior nutritive value, comparatively little is known of the fundamental nature of the changes brought about in the protein and how these correlate with the processing conditions during toasting. In the present study we examined the interrelation of several factors in the commercial desolventizing-toasting process for toasting soybean meal and determined how these relate to protein quality of the meal. A total of 48 test runs were made in the pilot plant from two cultivars of soybeans (one high and one low in protein) that were dehulled, flaked, and defatted in a continuous extractor using hexane. The solvent-wet flakes were desolventized and toasted under a variety of conditions. In a simulation of commercial operation, independent variables such as moisture, temperature and time of toasting were mathematically converted to equations for computer fitting of the data, which were used to predict several dependent measurements. Quality of the meal was improved by increasing heating time, jacket steam pressure and moisture content. Moisture level in the toasting operation was directly affected by the hexane level in the feed material to the toaster.     

Effect of equilibrium oil extraction on the chemical composition and sensory quality of soy flour and concentrates

Previous studies have shown that ambient-temperature equilibrium, hexane extraction of soy flour yielded the same amount of oil as was extracted from soy flakes by conventional high-temperature processing. The oil obtained at ambient temperatures contained less phospholipid than commercial crude oils obtained by traditional processing. In this study, chemical composition, flavor and odor of soy flour obtained after oil extraction by the equilibrium procedure were evaluated before and after toasting. Results were compared with those obtained for commercial untoasted food-grade soy flakes. Chemical and sensory analyses were performed on soy protein concentrates (SPC) prepared from defatted flour, defatted toasted flour and commercial defatted white food-grade flakes. SPC were made by acid and ethanol-extraction methods. Ethanol extraction of soy flour produced SPC with similar protein, lipid and sensory qualities to those obtained from commercial flakes. Acid extraction produced SPC with more lipid than was obtained by ethanol extraction. Toasted soy flour and flakes had similar sensory properties, as did the SPC prepared from them.     

白肋烟热解特性及其动力学

采用TG-DTG-DSC热分析联用技术研究了不同产地白肋烟的热解燃烧行为及其动力学,结果表明,从室温加热到800℃,不同产地的白肋烟热解燃烧过程均经历4个热失重过程,但温度范围不同,且每个阶段的质量和热量变化均不同,样品的主要反应发生在138~583℃内. 采用Coats-Redfern法对不同产地的白肋烟样品4个热失重阶段进行了动力学计算,结果表明,第I与第II阶段机理函数相同,而第III与第IV阶段机理函数相同;燃尽阶段的活化能明显比其他阶段的活化能高. 采用特殊收集装置收集4个热失重阶段的粒相产物,对其有害产物和致香成分的定量分析结果表明,不同产地的白肋烟样品在热解不同阶段产生的有害物质和致香成分的量有所不同,但大部分有害物质和致香成分在第II热失重阶段产生,且产生的量相对较大.     

Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Products Fried in High-Oleic,Low-Linolenic Rapeseed Oil

The effects of frying Berlin doughnuts and potato crisps in high-oleic, low-linolenic (HOLL) rapeseed oil were compared to other commonly used oils (i.e., palm olein, high-oleic sunflower oil, or partially hydrogenated oils). The chemical parameters characterizing the oxidative state of the products fried in HOLL were comparable to products being fried in other commonly used oils. The sensory characteristics of potato crisps fried in HOLL rapeseed oil were satisfactory and comparable to products fried in the other oils. Potato crisps were stable under nitrogen atmosphere for 20 weeks as measured by sensory quality scores. However, a storage time of 16 weeks was achieved for products stored under normal atmosphere. The suitability of HOLL rapeseed oil to improve the storage stability of Berlin doughnuts was limited. The sensory quality decreased during storage due to the development of abnormal taste and smell. Changes in the sensory quality were comparable to the results of the partially hydrogenated oils but worse for products fried in palm olein. Nevertheless, HOLL was a good alternative to partially hydrogenated oils as a frying medium.     

GRADING AND SAMPLING OF MISSOURI BURLEY AND DIASPORE CLAYS1

At the present time there is no uniform terminology applied to Missouri high alumina clays. The terms burley flint, burley, and diaspore are suggested. Sampling methods are described and the adoption of a uniform sampling procedure is recommended. The advantage of establishing a sliding scale of prices based on alumina content is pointed out.     

The use of appropriate technologies to improve the sanitary quality and the yield of goat cheeses in little farms

The purpose of this study was to increase the microbiological quality and yields of goat cheese prepared at farm level. For this purpose, appropriate technologies for the cheese-making process were designed, using a curd tank heated by gas, and cheese knives adjusted to the tank dimensions. Moreover, a low-cost table for whey draining and PVC moulds, were designed. Variables assayed were milk pasteurization, utilization of lactic acid starter by direct application, substitution of the kid rennet by commercial calf rennet, and cheese maturation for a one-month period. The control sample was goat cheese traditionally made by the small farmers. Processing and variables were evaluated by proximate chemical analysis, microbiological counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, total and fecal coliforms, and S. aureus; as well as by sensory evaluation of quality and acceptability. It was found that the cutting of curd with cheese knives significantly decreased solid losses in the whey. The addition of the starter and then the cheese maturation, as well as the use of the equipment previously described, increased the microbiological quality of cheese to standard sanitary regulation. Although pasteurization was the most effective treatment in decreasing bacteria contamination, this thermal treatment was difficult to be done under arid zones conditions. Commercial calf rennet did not differ significantly from kid rennet in the characteristics analyzed in this assay. Variables studied did not affect the normal sensory quality of goat cheese.