Fourier-transform cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy using an incoherent broadband light source

A cavity-enhanced absorption setup employing an incoherent broadband light source was used in combination with a Fourier-transform spectrometer to measure the spin-forbidden B-band of gaseous oxygen at approximately 688 nm and several weak absorption transitions of water vapor in the same spectral region at room temperature in ambient air. The experiments demonstrate that the sensitivity of a Fourier-transform spectrometer can be significantly improved by increasing the effective path length, while retaining a rather small sample volume. In comparison with a single-pass absorption measurement, we report a path-length enhancement factor of 200 and an improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio of approximately 6 in the present cavity-enhanced absorption experiment. The practical advantages and limitations of this novel approach are outlined and potential applications are briefly discussed.     

Long-path measurement of atmospheric NO2 with an obstruction flashlight and a charge-coupled-device spectrometer

A novel method of differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) is proposed and demonstrated to monitor the concentration of atmospheric pollutant gas. In contrast to conventional DOAS measurements with continuous light sources, the present method relies on white flashlights such as aviation obstruction lights that are generally installed on tall constructions. A simple detection system is devised by means of a telescope and a compact CCD spectrometer. A path length of 5.5 km allows us to measure atmospheric NO2 concentration with a detection limit of approximately 1 part per billion. We also discuss the possibility of deriving the aerosol optical thickness through the horizontal atmosphere from this pulsed DOAS measurement.     

Multiple path analysis of reflectance from turbid media

A novel method to calculate the reflectance of light from a turbid medium is presented. The method takes an approach similar to that of the Beer-Lambert law, where the intensity of light is attenuated by an exponential factor involving the path length and the absorption coefficient. Due to scatter, however, there are many path lengths; in the present method all possible path lengths are weighted by their probabilities and summed over. A path length probability density is derived by considering a photon random walk through the medium. The result is a simple expression for the reflectance based on the physical properties of the medium.     

Experimental Design for a Class of Accelerated Degradation Tests

Traditionally, reliability assessment of new devices has been based on accelerated life tests. This approach is not practical for highly reliable devices, such as lasers, which are not likely to fail in experiments of reasonable length. An alternative approach is to monitor the devices for a period of time and assess their reliability from the changes in performance (degradation) observed during the experiment. In this article, we propose a methodology for designing experiments for degradation processes in which the amount of degradation over time levels off toward a plateau (maximum degradation) that is a function of stress. We provide (a) the stress levels for the experiment, (b) the proportion of devices to test at each stress level, (c) the times at which to measure the devices, and (d) the total number of devices to test. We apply the proposed methodology to an actual example.     

Wavelength tuning and spectral properties of distributed feedback diode lasers with a short external optical cavity

We report on the wavelength tuning and spectral properties of distributed feedback (DFB) diode lasers operated with a plane external cavity (XC) mirror positioned as close as possible to the diode-laser front facet. These lasers generate single-frequency near IR radiation at wavelengths of 1392, 1580, 1602, and 1653 nm. A piezoelectric variation of the XC length provided continuous single-frequency tuning to as high as 19 GHz. A further benefit of XC DFB lasers is a residual amplitude modulation per gigahertz tuning of less than 10(-3). The XC feedback also suppresses residual side-mode oscillations to less than 60 dB. The laser's total intensity noise is close to the shot noise limit. The laser linewidth (measured in a beat note experiment) is less than 90 kHz within an acquisition time of 40 ms. The advantageous properties of XC DFB lasers for molecular spectroscopy are demonstrated by recording R(3) 2nu(3) overtone spectra of methane by single-scan single-pass absorption or frequency-modulation spectroscopy.     

Theoretical analysis of effect of temperature on threshold parameters and field intensity in GaN material based heterostructure

Temperature dependent analysis to achieve better performance by reducing threshold current requirements and field intensity has been carried out for GaN/AlGaN heterostructure lasers. The mirror loss in the GaN cavity has been obtained as a function of temperature and cavity length. The quantum efficiency has been deduced for different values of cavity length. Dependence of recombination rate on band gap and temperature has been investigated. Threshold current density has been deduced for GaN lasers and effect of temperature on it has been investigated. The near field intensity analysis has been carried out at different temperatures for 10% aluminum mole fraction in GaN/AlGaN heterostructure lasers. Furthermore, the effective index and FWHM of near field has been investigated as a function of temperature. It has been deduced from our analysis that temperature has a dominant effect on the threshold conditions and near field intensity in the wide band gap GaN based lasers.     

Ultrasensitive, visible tunable diode laser detection of NO(2)

Recent advances in room-temperature visible diode lasers and ultrasensitive detection techniques have been exploited to create a highly sensitive tunable diode laser absorption technique for in situ monitoring of NO(2) in the lower troposphere. High sensitivity to NO(2) is achieved by probing the visible absorption band of NO(2) with an AlGalnP diode laser at 640 or 670 nm combined with a balanced ratiometric electronic detection technique. We have demonstrated a sensitivity of 3.5 × 10(10) cm(-3) for neat NO(2) in a 1-m path at 640 nm and have estimated a sensitivity for ambient operation of 5 ppbv m (l0 ppbv m at 670 nm), where ppbvm is parts in 10(9) by volume per meter of absorption path length, from measured pressure-broadening coefficients.     

Mid-infrared diffuse reflection of a strongly absorbing analyte on non-absorbing and absorbing matrices. Part II: thin liquid layers on powdered substrates

The average total path length traveled by photons in mid-infrared diffuse reflection spectrometry of powdered potassium chloride matrices coated with a thin layer of silicone oil has been estimated. The average path length of the photons that had passed through the silicone oil layer was first calculated by the application of the Beer-Lambert law. The total path length through the coated particles was then estimated by dividing the path length of the silicone oil by its concentration. The average path length of the photons that had been diffusely reflected from KCl particles with an average diameter of approximately 5 microm that had been coated with a very thin layer of the silicone oil (corresponding to a concentration of 0.01% w:w) was estimated to be about 8 mm. This path length was significantly reduced either as the silicone oil concentration or the absorption of the matrix was increased. The result helps to explain why diffuse reflection spectrometry is a far poorer sampling technique for trace analysis when the matrix has strong absorption and why diffuse reflection is not a very promising technique for the standoff detection of nonvolatile chemical warfare agents.     

Assessment of near-infrared path length in fibrous phantom and muscle tissue

The first derivative of the pseudo-absorption spectrum of a water-loaded cotton wool (water-CW) phantom, which mimics muscle tissues, was used to determine the light path length in the near-infrared (NIR) region. The light path length increased as the density of the turbid medium decreased. It is independent of both water content in the range of 75-85% (by weight) and the diffuse reflecting reference used to determine the pseudo-absorbance. The path length determination procedure was verified by measurements of diffuse reflectance in chicken breast tissue for which the path length of 1.8 mm (differential path length factor, DPF = 2.1) was found to be similar to the path length of NIR light of 1.5-2.2 mm (DPF = 1.8-2.6) in a water-CW phantom of density similar to chicken breast. We conclude that the NIR light path length can serve as a characteristic of muscle tissue density.     

Phase locking of CO(2) lasers by the use of diffraction effects

A technique to phase lock CO(2) lasers with spatially separated active media was investigated. Only reflective optics (except for the output coupler) were used, in view of applications of this method in the field of high-power lasers. Phase locking was established when the beams of two resonator branches were made to propagate very close to each other along the so-called coupling path. As a result of diffraction effects both resonators were exchanging energy, establishing a phase-locked operation mode when several locking conditions were fulfilled. A maximum coupling coefficient (the ratio between the diffracted intensity in the second cavity and the intercavity intensity in the first resonator) of 2.6% could be achieved. Because phase locking was highly dependent on the difference between the two resonator lengths, a length control that uses a piezoelectric translator connected to one of the resonator mirrors was used. To detect phase locking, the intensity maximum of the interference pattern of the two laser beams was monitored with a fast detector. By application of a ramp signal to the piezoelectric translator and detection of the peak intensity, the locking range could be measured. Up to a mismatch of the resonator lengths of λ/130, locking could be maintained. The measurements were compared with results of a computer simulation with Huygens-Fresnel integrals to describe diffraction and the one-dimensional Maxwellian equations to calculate supermodes and to analyze their stability. The numerical results showed an excellent agreement with the measured values.     

MASERATI: a RocketBorne tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer

The MASERATI (middle-atmosphere spectrometric experiment on rockets for analysis of trace-gas influences) instrument is, to our knowledge, the first rocket-borne tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer that was developed for in situ measurements of trace gases in the middle atmosphere. Infrared absorption spectroscopy with lead salt diode lasers is applied to measure water vapor and carbon dioxide in the altitude range from 50 to 90 km and 120 km, respectively. The laser beams are directed into an open multiple-pass absorption setup (total path length 31.7 m) that is mounted on top of a sounding rocket and that is directly exposed to ambient air. The two species are sampled alternately with a sampling time of 7.37 ms, each corresponding to an altitude resolution of approximately 15 m. Frequency-modulation and lock-in techniques are used to achieve high sensitivity. Tests in the laboratory have shown that the instrument is capable of detecting a very small relative absorbance of 10(-4)-10(-5) when integrating spectra for 1 s. The instrument is designed and qualified to resist the mechanical stress occurring during the start of a sounding rocket and to be operational during the cruising phase of the flight when accelerations are very small. Two almost identical versions of the MASERATI instrument were built and were launched on sounding rockets from the And?ya Rocket Range (69 degrees N) in northern Norway on 12 October 1997 and on 31 January 1998. The good technical performance of the instruments during these flights has demonstrated that MASERATI is indeed a new suitable tool to perform rocket-borne in situ measurements in the upper atmosphere.     

High-precision diode-laser-based temperature measurement for air refractive index compensation

We present a laser-based system to measure the refractive index of air over a long path length. In optical distance measurements, it is essential to know the refractive index of air with high accuracy. Commonly, the refractive index of air is calculated from the properties of the ambient air using either Ciddor or Edlén equations, where the dominant uncertainty component is in most cases the air temperature. The method developed in this work utilizes direct absorption spectroscopy of oxygen to measure the average temperature of air and of water vapor to measure relative humidity. The method allows measurement of temperature and humidity over the same beam path as in optical distance measurement, providing spatially well-matching data. Indoor and outdoor measurements demonstrate the effectiveness of the method. In particular, we demonstrate an effective compensation of the refractive index of air in an interferometric length measurement at a time-variant and spatially nonhomogeneous temperature over a long time period. Further, we were able to demonstrate 7 mK RMS noise over a 67 m path length using a 120 s sample time. To our knowledge, this is the best temperature precision reported for a spectroscopic temperature measurement.     

Controlling the optical path length in turbid media using differential path-length spectroscopy: fiber diameter dependence

We have characterized the path length for the differential path-length spectroscopy (DPS) fiber optic geometry for a wide range of optical properties and for fiber diameters ranging from 200 microm to 1000 microm. Phantom measurements show that the path length is nearly constant for scattering coefficients in the range 5 mm(-1)< micros <50 mm(-1) for all fiber diameters and that the path length is proportional to the fiber diameter. The path length decreases with increasing absorption for all fiber diameters, and this effect is more pronounced for larger fiber diameters. An empirical model is formulated that relates the DPS path length to total absorption for all fiber diameters simultaneously.     

Effective path length in attenuated total reflection spectroscopy

Attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectroscopy is now the most popular sampling technique for the measurement of infrared spectra of condensed phase samples. Most practitioners of ATR spectroscopy use the equation for depth of penetration, d(p), to estimate the path length of the evanescent wave through the sample. However, the effective path length, d(e), of the evanescent wave in an ATR measurement, i.e., the equivalent path length in a transmission measurement that would lead to an absorption band of the same intensity, is a more accurate metric than d(p). In measurements designed to obtain the absorptivity of bands in the spectrum of a strongly absorbing viscous liquid, we have shown that the refractive index used in the expressions for d(e) must be modified to take into account the effect of anomalous dispersion before accurate effective path lengths and band absorptivities can be measured.     

Effect of optical pumping on alkali-atom Doppler-limited spectra

Using a three-level model and semiclassical density matrix formalism, we show that optical pumping influences both line positions and amplitudes in Doppler-broadened alkali-atom D₁ and D₂ spectra for intensities much lower than the two-level atom saturation intensity. The influence on the D₂ spectrum is particularly interesting due to the presence of closed hyperfine transitions unaffected by optical pumping. This effect is of importance for example when lasers are frequency stabilized using linear absorption or when the alkali-atom vapour pressure is determined using absorption measurements.     

LED光谱辐射强度测量不确定度分析

与LED测量紧密相关的测量不确定度具有非常重要的意义。通过选择恰当的数量、装置等,可以举例分析不确定度计算的过程。试验中采用可溯源至NIM的光谱光度计和标准LED,通过实验和计算分析了LED光谱辐射强度的测量不确定度。     

In situ measurements of optical parameters in Lake Baikal with the help of a Neutrino telescope

We present results of an experiment performed in Lake Baikal at a depth of approximately 1 km. The photomultipliers of an underwater neutrino telescope under construction at this site were illuminated by a distant laser. The experiment not only provided a useful cross-check of the time calibration of the detector but also allowed us to determine inherent optical parameters of the water in a way that was complementary to standard methods. In 1997 we measured an absorption length of 22 m and an asymptotic attenuation length of 18 m. The effective scattering length was measured as 480 m. By use of (cos theta) = 0.95 (0.90) for the average scattering angle, this length corresponds to a geometric scattering length of 24 (48) m.     

Transportable automated ammonia sensor based on a pulsed thermoelectrically cooled quantum-cascade distributed feedback laser

A compact ammonia sensor based on a 10-microm single-frequency, thermoelectrically cooled, pulsed quantum-cascade laser with an embedded distributed feedback structure has been developed. To measure NH3 concentrations, we scanned the laser over two absorption lines of its fundamental v2 band. A sensitivity of better than 0.3 parts per million was achieved with just a 1-m optical path length. The sensor is computer controlled and automated to monitor NH3 concentrations continuously for extended periods of time and to store data in the computer memory.     

Long path atomic/ionic absorption spectrometry in an inductively coupled plasma

A novel approach was taken to increase the atomic/ionic absorption path length in an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) by using a water-cooled quartz "T-shaped" bonnet. Atomic and ionic absorption spectrometry was performed utilizing a continuum source and line sources. Absorption spectra of synthetic multielement solutions were collected with a photodiode array. Sample introduction into the ICP was accomplished with an ultrasonic nebulizer. To prevent the bonnet from cracking, low radio frequency powers were utilized (i.e., 400-600 W). Plasma diagnostics were performed to study the plasma temperature and electron number density within the "T-shaped" bonnet. Analytical figures of merit were found to be better than those obtained from previous work attempted with inductively coupled plasma atomic absorption spectroscopy and approaching that of flame atomic absorption spectroscopy.     

Useful laser source criteria for optical storage employing extended eye-diagram jitter theory

In view of the recent progress in visible lasers for next-generation optical disks, we describe the influence of source wavelength, aberration, and noise on eye-diagram jitter, which determines the ultimate disk density. The analysis indicates that the sources used in a readout of a 6× areal density, (4,22) run-length-limited code with a minimum mark length of 0.4 μm must have a wavelength that satisfies the Nyquist condition of relationship between the spot size and the minimum mark length, a wave-front aberration of less than 0.035 rms λ, and relative intensity noise of less than -125 dB/Hz.