The water–food–energy nexus: an introduction to nexus concepts and some conceptual and operational problems

This introduction sets the scene for the special issue compiled by Martin Keulertz, Eckart Woertz and Tony Allan.     

Application of a water–energy–food nexus framework for the Duero river basin in Spain

This paper proposes a framework for the identification, assessment and analysis of the water–energy–food nexus at a basin scale. This methodology is applied to the Duero river basin in Spain to detect the most important conflicts derived from water, food and energy interdependencies. Some of the most important issues are the limitations posed by rising energy prices for irrigated agriculture due to modernization, limitations to water treatment, and the possible emergence of new water demands for energy by hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas and enhanced bioenergy.     

The water–energy–food (WEF) security nexus: the policy perspective of Bangladesh

This paper provides a review of the emerging literature on the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus and then analyses the nexus in the context of Bangladesh. Results suggest that the WEF nexus is not yet recognized in the policy documents of Bangladesh, while conflicts over these resources are growing. In order to reduce this contestation, ‘policy integration’ is recommended for implementing key policies in the WEF nexus.     

Towards a water–energy–food nexus policy: realizing the blue and green virtual water of agriculture in Jordan

Virtual water is an important addendum to how we view a country's water resources. This study examines the virtual water embedded in Jordan's agricultural produce and its impact on future water–energy–food policies. Blue and green virtual waters are calculated from data on rainfall, crop patterns, yields, and water requirements at the district level. Results highlight the advantages of blue water usage in the Jordan Valley and of harnessing more available green water in the Highlands, with both displaying low energy impact. Results also emphasize the high groundwater usage and energy footprint in the Desert regions, signalling a need to rein in groundwater extraction and take advantage of solar power.     

To what end? Drip irrigation and the water–energy–food nexus in Morocco

This article draws on three case studies of drip irrigation adoption in Morocco to consider the water–energy–food nexus concept from a bottom-up perspective. Findings indicate that small farmers' adoption of drip irrigation is conditional, that water and energy efficiency does not necessarily reduce overall consumption, and that adoption of drip irrigation (and policies supporting it) can create winners and losers. The article concludes that, although the water–energy–food WEF nexus concept may offer useful insights, its use in policy formulation should be tempered with caution. Technical options that appear beneficial at the conceptual level can have unintended consequences in practice, and policies focused on issues of scarcity and efficiency may exacerbate other dimensions of poverty and inequality.     

Governance of transitions towards sustainable development – the water–energy–food nexus in Cyprus

This paper presents a methodological framework to analyse sustainability innovations in the water–energy–food nexus and strategies for governing transition processes towards their widespread implementation. An application to a case study in Cyprus shows the interrelations of several sustainability innovations in the water, energy and food sectors, and specific learning requirements that need to be addressed to achieve a transition towards sustainable development. The framework helps to explore systematically responsibilities of different stakeholders for the implementation of innovations and thereby provides critical information for reflexive governance processes.     

Non-water factors in water governance and their implications for water sustainability: The case of Ontario’s water use reduction policy

Despite longstanding interest in reducing water use in Ontario, Canada’s most populous province, public policy responses have tended to be restricted to the water sector’s traditional remit, e.g., improving public access to water data. However, it is not clear that these type of measures will be enough to address concerns over water quantity and advance water sustainability, as they are tied to other socio-economic concerns, external to the water sector. The purpose of this study is to understand the range of external factors that influenced the development and implementation of the water use reduction (WUR) policy in Ontario, and to identify opportunities for harnessing these factors to advance WUR objectives. To do so, we propose a diagnostic framework that maps external factors in relation to a specific water governance situation. We carried out 13 semi-structured interviews and reviewed 56 documents. We combined deductive and inductive approaches to content analysis. We found many non-water factors influencing the governance of WUR in Ontario. Particularly, the economic development provincial objective strongly shaped Ontario’s WUR policy by influencing the adoption of a demand management approach centering on water efficiency, rather than conservation. Furthermore, the WUR policy primarily serves the economic development objective. An implication is that water policies can be used instrumentally, raising the question of what constitutes a “water policy”. In summary, this study argues that non-water factors can thus influence our path to water sustainability, in this case represented by the water conservation approach, by defining an enabling (or hindering), institutional framework.     

Bioenergy,food security and poverty reduction: trade-offs and synergies along the water–energy–food security nexus

This article provides a review of trade-offs and synergies of bioenergy within the water–energy–food security nexus, with emphasis on developing countries. It explores the links of bioenergy with food security, poverty reduction, environmental sustainability, health, and gender equity. It concludes that applying the nexus perspective to analyses of bioenergy widens the scope for achieving multiple-win outcomes along the above aspects.     

Water–food–energy nexus in Chile: the challenges due to global change in different regional contexts

This paper modifies the traditional representation of the water–food–energy (WFE) nexus by emphasizing the flows or influences between components. This allows a better representation of the dynamic nature of the WFE nexus in response to global change drivers. It applies a conceptual figure to synthesize the status and future challenges of the nexus in four regions of Chile that are currently under pressure due to climate variability, relative water scarcity and strong competition for water from different sectors.     

Water–energy–food nexus in a transboundary context: the Euphrates–Tigris river basin as a case study

The interlinkage between water, energy and food security and its transboundary relevance is becoming increasingly important. The paper analyses the evolution of transboundary water resources management in the Euphrates–Tigris basin with specific reference to interlinkages between water, food and energy policies at national and transboundary levels, and it explores how the policy shifts at the highest decision-making level have served to produce synergies for cooperation among the riparians or vice versa.     

Nexus meets crisis: a review of conflict,natural resources and the humanitarian response in Darfur with reference to the water–energy–food nexus

Darfur has been widely used as a case study by both those arguing for causality between environmental scarcity and war and those disputing it. This article challenges that approach by drawing on debates taking place within Darfur, reflecting on both the conflict and the humanitarian response. It argues that reviewing Darfur on its own terms makes a stronger basis to identify transferable lessons for interventions elsewhere. It considers water, food and energy, and finds that supporting governance is an essential theme for promoting economic recovery and laying a foundation for a well-managed water–energy–food nexus.     

Rapid assessment of the water–energy–food–climate nexus in six selected basins of North Africa and West Asia undergoing transitions and scarcity threats

Existing strategies for management of water scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa negotiate a complex system of trade-offs between water, energy, and food production. The effects of rural households' green water management practices on basin-level water, energy, food and carbon stocks and flows are sketched qualitatively in six basin agro-ecosystems. The case for increased strategic support for green agricultural water management practices appears stronger when weighed from the nexus perspective, rather than purely from the point of view of water balance and food production. Trade-offs under critical transitions affecting agricultural water use are explored, and the scope for quantitative monitoring is discussed.     

Telecoupling in urban water systems: an examination of Beijing’s imported water supply

Urban centres increasingly have difficulties meeting water needs within their hydrologic basins. To sustain urban water supply, cities and water source regions have increased telecouplings (socio-economic and environmental interactions over distances). To analyse these complex interactions, we apply the new telecoupling framework to the water-stressed megacity of Beijing’s imported water supply. We found that Beijing’s remote water sources have lower risk than local supply, but connections impact the sending systems. The telecoupling framework provides a standard, systematic and flexible tool for evaluating the sustainability of urban water supply. It also identifies a number of research gaps for future quantification efforts.     

Incentives for ecosystem service supply in Australia's Murray–Darling Basin

For Australia, the Murray–Darling Basin is a significant ecological and socioeconomic asset. During the Millennium Drought (1997 – 2010), severe ecosystem service losses provided impetus for water policy reform. With around $8.9 billion committed, the Commonwealth's two-pronged water recovery strategy is to purchase water entitlements for the environment and support investment in improving irrigation infrastructure efficiency. In this paper, we consider the design of a complementary payment for ecosystem services pathway which using water as payment can provide incentives for local ecosystem service supply.     

Policy options for promoting urban–rural cooperation in water management: a review

As most cities share their water basins with rural areas, an efficient and environmentally sensible urban water management system needs to consider the interplay between urban and rural water uses. This article analyses the three main challenges at this interface: increased competition for water resources (scarcity); flood management (abundance); and freshwater quality conservation (pollution). The merit of potential policy options is discussed from an economics perspective, taking examples from successful experiences in cities around the world. The benefits and challenges arising from enhanced coordination and integration between urban and rural water management are highlighted.     

Complicating neoliberalization and decentralization: the non-linear experience of Colombian water supply, 1909–2012

This article presents key elements in the evolution of water supply regulation in Colombia over the twentieth century. This is novel in that it contradicts widely accepted and seemingly universal trends in water supply development. By putting apparently recent phenomena into a longer historical trajectory, we are able to nuance the idea of a unidirectional transition from centralized to decentralized governance, as well as the evolution of policies associated with neoliberalization. We find that regulatory development began at the municipal scale in the 1920s, only to be centralized mid-century. By the same token, policies typically associated with neoliberalization – such as corporatization, full cost recovery, and volumetric metering – began in the 1910s and 1920s and not under neoliberalism in the 1980s. The work is based on a database compiled by the authors. The database comprises municipal, departmental and state regulatory interventions from 1909 to 2012.     

Sefficiency (sustainable efficiency) of water–energy–food entangled systems

Water–energy–food (WEF) entanglement is intensifying and technology is being presented as a crucial solution. But time and again the implemented alternative manifests results contrary to the objectives of design or management. To advance water security, transparent and complete input–output methodologies are needed. Here, a Sefficiency (sustainable efficiency) framework is used to reason through systemic analyses of options for WEF schemes by using water quantity within a comprehensive water balance, and quality and benefits in a multilevel water-use system. An energy regime (cost and normalized functions) and Sefficiency compute performance of four cases that show flaws both conceptually and practically in current policy and scientific tendencies.