Parameters Affecting Destruction of Salmonella spp. by Microwave Heating

The relationship between time of heating, temperatures achieved during heating, and consequent destruction of Salmonella spp. was examined with four microwave ovens designed for home use. Power level (output), post-heating holding time, heating medium volume, container shape, and covering of containers were investigated. Post-heating holding times of two or more minutes increased (P = 0.05) bacterial destruction, while significantly less destruction was observed in ovens of lower (e.g., 450 W) wattage. Heating medium volume, container shape, and covering containers did not significantly alter destruction of salmonellae heated to 60°.     

复原乳鉴别指标探讨

选择适宜的鉴别指标,确定并完善复原乳的鉴定方法,不但可为质量监督检验机构的检测和监督工作提供技术支持．而且可有效保护消费者的利益。可以通过检测牛奶在长时间贮藏过程中产生的荧光物质．或检测牛奶中脂肪酸组成分的变化来鉴别鲜奶与复原乳,但难以排除某些干扰因素的影响。近年来复原乳鉴定指标的研究热点主要集中在奶制品经热处理后其中的热损害产物。有两种化学反应产物可用来评价：（1）降解产物：热不稳定组分的降解、变性、失活,如乳清蛋白或酶;（2）新形成物质：如乳果糖或美拉德反应的产物。目前国际上通常用糠氨酸和乳果糖作为评估热处理和贮存对奶制品质量影响的指标。然而各指标也不可避免的存在一定的局限性,因此可能需要不止一个指标来进行综合评价。     

The survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in raw and pasteurized milk and milk products

The Foot-and-Mouth Disease virus (FMDV) is not a public health threat, but it is highly contagious to cloven-footed animals. The virus is shed into milk up to 33 h before there are apparent signs of the disease in dairy cows, and, in extreme cases, signs of disease may not appear for up to 14 d. During this time, raw milk can serve as a vector for spread of the disease both at the farm and during transport to the processing plant by milk tanker. Raw milk and milk products fed to animals have the potential to cause infection, but the potential for pasteurized milk products to cause infection is largely unknown. Current minimum pasteurization standards may not be adequate to eliminate FMDV in milk completely. The purpose of this paper is to assess the literature on the thermal resistance of FMDV in milk and milk products, to identify the risks associated with ingestion of pasteurized products by animals, and to lay a strategy to prevent the spread of FMDV from contaminated milk.     

Effect of waste milk pasteurization on fecal shedding of Salmonella in preweaned calves

The objective of the current research was to determine if pasteurization of nonsaleable waste milk influences fecal Salmonella concentrations and prevalence, or antimicrobial susceptibility and serotype of the cultured isolates. Holstein dairy calves (n = 211) were housed on a single commercial dairy in the southwestern United States and randomly allotted to be fed either pasteurized (PWM; n = 128 calves) or nonpasteurized waste milk (NPWM; n = 83 calves). Fecal samples were collected via rectal palpation or from freshly voided, undisturbed fecal pats, weekly during the first 4 wk of the animal's life and then again at weaning. Eight total collections were made and 1,117 fecal samples cultured for Salmonella. One isolate from each culture-positive fecal sample was preserved for antimicrobial susceptibility screening and serotyping. Sixty-nine percent of the fecal samples were culture positive for Salmonella with no difference due to treatment (67.7 and 69% Salmonella positive for PWM and NPWM treatments, respectively). Few fecal samples (178/1,117; 15.9%) contained Salmonella concentrations above the limit of detection (～1 cfu/g of feces) with concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 6.46 cfu (log₁₀)/g of feces. Concentration was not affected by treatment. Seventeen different serotypes were identified, the majority of which were Montevideo and Anatum. A greater percentage of Typhimurium (87 vs. 13%), Muenchen (88 vs. 12%), and Derby (91 vs. 9%) were recovered from calves fed PWM compared with NPWM-fed calves. Conversely, Newport (12.5 vs. 86%), Bredeney (22.2 vs. 77.8%), and Muenster (12.5 vs. 87.5%) were lower in PWM compared with NPWM treatments. The majority (66.7%) of isolates were susceptible to all of the antibiotics examined. Results from this one commercial dairy suggest that milkborne Salmonella is not an important vector of transmission in dairy neonates, nor does pasteurization of waste milk influence fecal shedding of this pathogen. Caution should be used, however, when extrapolating results to other farms as Salmonella contamination of milk on farm is well documented. The potential benefits of pasteurization in disease prevention outweigh the potential risks of feeding a nonpasteurized product and warrants incorporation into any calf-rearing program using nonsaleable waste milk for feeding young dairy neonates.     

Evaluation of calf milk pasteurization systems on 6 Pennsylvania dairy farms

Waste milk has been fed to calves for many years, but concerns with bacterial contamination as well as possible transmission of diseases have discouraged widespread use of this feed. Pasteurization of waste milk is one option to reduce management risk while utilizing a valuable, low-cost, liquid feed source for calves. However, many farms currently pasteurizing waste milk lack a system to adequately monitor the efficiency of the process. A study was carried out to evaluate 6 on-farm pasteurization systems, including high-temperature, short-time pasteurizers and low-temperature, batch pasteurizers. Milk samples were taken pre- and postpasteurization as well as from the calf buckets and immediately frozen for later bacterial culture. Samples were collected twice daily for 15 d. Milk samples were examined for standard plate count (SPC), coagulase-negative staphylococci count, environmental streptococci count, coliform count, gram-negative noncoliform count, Streptococcus agalactiae count, and Staphylococcus aureus count. Before pasteurization, 68% of the samples had SPC <20,000 cfu/mL, and 39% of samples contained <100 cfu/mL of coliform bacteria. After pasteurization, 96% of samples had SPC <20,000 cfu/mL, and 92% had coliform counts <100 cfu/mL. Bacteria counts were significantly reduced by pasteurization, and pasteurized milk contained acceptable numbers of bacteria in >90% of samples. These results indicate that pasteurization can be very effective in lowering bacterial contamination of milk. However, bacteria numbers significantly increased after pasteurization and, in some cases, bacteria counts in milk fed to calves were similar to prepasteurization levels. Milk handling after pasteurization was identified as an important issue on the farms studied.     

不同巴氏杀菌处理对绵羊乳总蛋白及乳清蛋白二级结构的影响

目的: 分析不同巴氏杀菌处理下绵羊乳蛋白的结构变化,同时以牛乳为对照,比较二者差异性。 方法 :分别以低温长时巴氏杀菌（65 ℃ 30 min）、高温短时巴氏杀菌（85 ℃ 15 s）和超巴氏杀菌（121 ℃ 5 s）对绵羊乳、牛乳进行杀菌处理,探究巴氏杀菌处理对绵羊乳和牛乳总蛋白及乳清蛋白二级结构的影响。 结果: 3种巴氏杀菌处理均会影响绵羊乳总蛋白和乳清蛋白二级结构,改变乳蛋白原空间结构;相比总蛋白,乳清蛋白二级结构稳定性受热处理影响更大（P＜0.05,超巴氏杀菌处理对绵羊乳总蛋白与乳清蛋白二级结构影响最大,乳清蛋白变性程度最大。绵羊乳与牛乳在3种巴氏杀菌处理方式下蛋白二级结构的变化规律略有差异。 结论: 3种巴氏杀菌处理下低温长时巴氏杀菌绵羊乳蛋白结构及组成变化最小,且绵羊乳总蛋白与乳清蛋白二级结构的变化规律与牛乳略有不同,在绵羊乳液态奶加工时应引起足够重视。     

乳制品中的Maillard反应标示物及其应用

乳制品中的Maillard反应标示物既可作为乳制品热处理程度的指标，还可用于不同热处理乳制品的鉴别。介绍了在评价乳制品热处理程度以及区分不同乳制品中常用的几种Maillard反应标示物。这些标示物包括糠氨酸、乳果糖、糠醛类化合物、荧光化合物等。此外，还介绍了可溶性乳清蛋白、碱性磷酸酶和乳过氧化物酶等热处理标示物，这些标示物与Maillard反应之间具有较好的相关性，也是评价乳制品热处理程度以及区分不同乳制品时常用的指标，可与Maillard反应标示物联合应用。     

全脂牛乳粉中糖基化酪蛋白分析

研究全脂牛乳粉中糖基化酪蛋白,探讨其酶解特性。重点考察了不同pH、酸及提取方法对酪蛋白提取质量百分数的影响,并通过SDS-PAGE电泳分析酪蛋白,高碘酸—希夫碱染色法及莫氏试验鉴定糖基化酪蛋白,木瓜蛋白酶水解酪蛋白,测定其氨基酸含量。结果表明,pH 4.6时提取酪蛋白的质量百分数显著高于其他组(P0.05);质量百分数为2%的乙酸(pH 3.58)提取酪蛋白的质量百分数为(40.45±0.66)%,显著高于其他组(P0.05);鞣酸提取酪蛋白的质量百分数为(46.13±0.46)%,显著高于其他方法(P0.05);酪蛋白SDS-PAGE电泳结果表明,不同酸、不同方法提取的酪蛋白均有3条带,其分子量均分别为34,24,60ku;高碘酸—希夫碱染色结果表明,分子量为34,24ku的酪蛋白是糖基化酪蛋白;莫氏试验结果表明,乳粉酪蛋白中存在糖基化酪蛋白;酶解结果表明,乳粉酪蛋白经木瓜蛋白酶水解后游离氨基酸含量显著高于鲜乳酪蛋白(P0.05)。说明全脂牛乳粉中有糖基化酪蛋白,其分子量分别为34,24ku,易于水解。     

Destruction of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Salmonella spp., and Mycoplasma spp. in raw milk by a commercial on-farm high-temperature, short-time pasteurizer

The 2002 NAHM's Dairy Survey indicated that 87.2% of dairy farms in the United States feed waste milk to their neonatal calves. Although cost-effective, this practice can lead to increased calf morbidity and mortality due to ingestion of pathogenic agents. In an effort to reduce the risk of infection, dairy producers are implementing on-farm pasteurization of the waste milk as a control procedure before feeding the milk to calves. In the present study, the efficacy of a commercial high-temperature, short-time (HTST) on-farm pasteurizer unit to destroy Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Salmonella enterica spp., and Mycoplasma spp. in raw milk was evaluated. Replicate experiments were run for 3 isolates of M. paratuberculosis, 3 serovars of Salmonella (derby, dublin, typhimurium); and 4 species of Mycoplasma (bovis, californicum, canadense, serogroup 7) at 2 different levels of experimental inoculation. In addition, HTST pasteurization experiments were performed on colostrum experimentally inoculated with M. paratuberculosis. After culture of the pasteurized milk samples, no viable M. paratuberculosis, Salmonella, or Mycoplasma were recovered, regardless of species, strain, or isolate. Pasteurization of colostrum was also effective in the destruction of M. paratuberculosis but resulted in an average 25% reduction in colostral immunoglobulin. These results suggest that HTST pasteurization is effective in generating a safer product to feed to young calves.     

Possible implications of milk pasteurization on the manufacture and sensory quality of ripened cheese

Cheese made from raw milk represents an important proportion of the traditional cheeses, particularly in South European countries. Besides destruction of pathogenic bacteria, the most significant changes in milk relevant to cheesemaking, which are induced by pasteurization are:

• a partial elimination of the milk microorganisms which may grow in cheese during ripening,

• a partial or total activation or inhibition of the plasmin/plasminogen complex, cathepsin D, lipoprotein lipase and alkaline phosphatase. Enzymes from psychrotrophic bacteria, acid phosphatase and xanthine oxidase, which may be active during ripening, withstand pasteurization.,

• a slight (7%) denaturation of serum proteins and little or no modification of the cheesemaking properties (coagulation, acidification by lactic acid bacteria).

From experimental work carried out on several cheese varieties, comparing pasteurized or microfiltered milk and raw milk cheeses, it was found that facultatively heterofermentative lactobacilli, Micrococcaceae, enterococci, and propionibacteria in Swiss-type cheese, are found at higher levels in raw milk cheese. The main biochemical modification of cheese during ripening concerns the nature and extent of proteolysis. Although there is no clear trend in the breakdown of _s1- and β-caseins, milk pasteurization leads to a significant decrease of the amount of small peptides and free amino acids and to different HPLC profiles. Experiments carried out with sensory analysis show that, in all cases, pasteurized or microfiltered milk cheeses have received lower flavour intensity scores than raw milk cheeses. From this review, it is concluded that the indigenous milk microflora, with its diversity of species and strains, appears to be mainly responsible of the specific sensory properties of raw milk cheeses.     

毛细管电泳技术在乳制品营养与安全分析中的应用

乳制品的营养与安全一直广受世界范围内的关注,各种色谱及色谱-质谱联用技术在乳制品分析中得到广泛应用。毛细管电泳技术在乳制品的营养与安全分析中独具特色,成为不可或缺的分析技术。本文围绕毛细管电泳技术分析乳及乳制品中乳糖和半乳糖、胆碱、5’-单磷酸核苷酸、硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐、山梨酸和苯甲酸等小分子化合物的方法,结合本实验室利用毛细管电泳技术参加能力验证等方面的工作,从营养成分、限量物质、残留分析、禁用物质、复原乳识别和能力验证这6个方面,对近10年来毛细管电泳技术在乳制品营养与安全分析中有代表性的应用研究及其进展进行总结,并对其在乳制品中小分子化学物质分析中的发展趋势进行了展望。     

Human Milk Composition and Preservation: Evaluation of High-pressure Processing as a Nonthermal Pasteurization Technology

Human milk is seen not only as a food, but as a functional and dynamic biologic system. It provides nutrients, bioactive components, and immune factors, promoting adequate and healthy growth of newborn infants. When mothers cannot supply their children, donated breast milk is the nutrition recommended by the World Health Organization, as it is a better alternative than infant formula. However, because of the manner in which donor milk is handled in human milk banks (HMB) many of the properties ascribed to mother's own milk are diminished or destroyed. The major process responsible for these losses is Holder pasteurization. High-pressure processing (HPP) is a novel nonthermal pasteurization technology that is being increasingly applied in food industries worldwide, primarily as an alternative to thermal treatment. This is due to its capacity to inactivate microorganisms while preserving both nutritional and bioactive components of foods. This review describes human milk composition and preservation, and critically discusses HMB importance and practices, highlighting HPP as a potential nonthermal pasteurization technology for human milk preservation. HPP technology is described and the few currently existing studies of its effects in human milk are presented.     

Characteristics of reduced fat milks as influenced by the incorporation of folic acid

Folic acid plays an important role in the prevention of neural tube defects (e.g., spina bifida and anencephaly), heart defects, facial clefts, urinary abnormalities, and limb deficiencies. Milk and milk products serve as a potential source for folic acid fortification because of the presence of folate-binding proteins that seem to be involved in folate bioavailability. Although milk is not a good source of folic acid, fortification could help in the prevention of the above-mentioned defects. The objective of this study was to examine the physicochemical characteristics of reduced fat milks fortified with folic acid. Reduced fat milks were prepared using 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the recommended dietary allowance of 400 μg of folic acid. Treatments included addition of folic acid at these levels before and after pasteurization. Color, pH, fat, protein, viscosity, folic acid concentration, folate-binding protein concentration, folate-binding protein profile, standard plate count, and coliform counts were determined on d 1, 7, 14, and 21. A consumer acceptability test was conducted on d 7. Data from the consumer panel were analyzed using ANOVA (PROC GLM) with means separation to determine the differences among treatments. Data obtained from the color, pH, fat, protein, viscosity, folic acid concentration, folate-binding protein concentration, standard plate count, and coliform counts were analyzed using the GLM with a repeated measure in time. Significant differences were determined at P < 0.05 using Tukey's Studentized Range Test. There were no differences in the electrophoretic mobility of folate-binding protein in the samples. The concentration of folic acid was significantly higher in reduced fat milks fortified with folic acid after pasteurization compared with the treatments in which folic acid was added before pasteurization. The consumer panelists did not find any significant differences in flavor, appearance, or texture of folic acid fortified reduced fat milks compared with that of the control. Fortification of reduced fat milks with folic acid can be accomplished without adversely affecting the product characteristics.     

乳酸脱氢酶测定试剂盒鉴定复原乳

利用乳酸脱氢酶测定试剂盒测定巴氏杀菌乳、超高温灭菌乳和复原乳中乳酸脱氢酶活性的差异以鉴定复原乳。结果显示：巴氏杀菌乳中乳酸脱氢酶的活性显著高于超高温灭菌乳和复原乳。该方法操作简单、快速准确, 值得推广。     

添加复原乳对酸奶品质的影响

为探究添加复原乳对酸奶品质的影响,以含有不同比例（0%、20%、40%、60%、80%和100%）复原乳的原料发酵酸奶,以感官评分、酸度、粒径、质构、乳清析出率和糠氨酸含量为指标评价酸奶品质。结果表明：随着复原乳比例的增加,酸奶的感官评分逐渐降低,酸度变化幅度增大,硬度增大,而黏着性降低,乳清析出率增大,持水性变差。与以生鲜乳为原料制作的酸奶相比,含复原乳的原料发酵酵所得的酸奶颗粒粒径较大,且糠氨酸含量升高,品质变差。     

中老年低脂高纤牛奶的研制

巴氏杀菌低脂高纤牛奶是根据中老年人群的生理特点，合理调配多种维生素、矿物质、增加膳食纤维、降低牛奶中的脂肪含量，采用合理的巴氏杀菌生产工艺，最大程度的保证产品的营养物质，该产品具有口感佳、产品稳定性好、营养物质高等特点。     

紫外分光光度法鉴别复原奶和保鲜奶

对保鲜奶和复原奶中未变性乳清蛋白质量浓度的差别进行研究，初步探索了以紫外分光光度法对二者进行快速鉴别的方法。通过对未变性乳清蛋白的吸光度的研究确定了它的最大吸收波长为292nm，可在此波长下测出它的吸光度值并由标准曲线的线性回归方程算得其质量浓度。结果表明，复原奶中的未变性乳清蛋白质量浓度与保鲜奶中未变性乳清蛋白质量浓度差异较大。测量结果与凯氏定氯法的测量结果进行比较，这种方法与凯氏定氯法无显著差异，但此法较为简易，实用性较强。     

A 100-Year Review: The production of fluid (market) milk

During the first 100 years of the Journal of Dairy Science, dairy foods and dairy production dairy scientists have partnered to publish new data and research results that have fostered the development of new knowledge. This knowledge has been the underpinning of both the commercial development of the fluid milk processing industry and regulations and marketing policies for the benefit of dairy farmers, processors, and consumers. During the first 50 years, most of the focus was on producing and delivering high-quality raw milk to factories and improving the shelf life of pasteurized fluid milk. During the second 50 years, raw milk quality was further improved through the use of milk quality payment incentives. Due to changing demographics and lifestyle, whole fluid milk consumption declined and processing technologies were developed to increase the range of fluid milk products (skim and low-fat milks, flavored milks, lactose-reduced milk, long-shelf-life milks, and milks with higher protein and calcium contents) offered to the consumer. In addition, technology to produce specialty high-protein sports beverages was developed, which expanded the milk-based beverage offerings to the consumer.