Prevalence and counts of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat at retail level in Estonia

Campylobacter contamination of poultry meat at retail level was studied in two surveys during the twelve-month period of 2012 in Estonia. The data from these surveys were combined and analyzed, partially together, in order to comprehensively estimate the prevalence and possible seasonality of Campylobacter in poultry and in poultry meat products in Estonia. Mostly Estonian, Lithuanian and Latvian products, representing the most typical origins of poultry products on the Estonian retail market, were sampled and analyzed in these surveys. The first survey, organized by the Estonian Veterinary and Food Board, focused on Campylobacter prevalence in poultry meat at retail level. The second survey, at the Estonian University of Life Sciences, focused on Campylobacter prevalence and counts in fresh broiler chicken meat at retail level. Additionally, broiler chicken caecal samples were collected at slaughterhouse level for the estimation of the seasonal variation of Campylobacter colonization. Caecal samples were collected weekly from a broiler chicken slaughterhouse belonging to a company representing over 95% of all commercial broiler production in Estonia. A total of 606 poultry meat samples at retail level and 380 broiler chicken caecal samples at slaughterhouse level were collected and analyzed. A total of 20.8% of the poultry meat and 39.2% of the caecal samples were found positive for Campylobacter spp. The mean number of Campylobacters in fresh broiler chicken meat in the positive samples was 3.20 log₁₀CFU/g. A distinct seasonal variation in the Campylobacter contamination of broiler chicken meat was observed, which peaked during the warm summer period.     

Campylobacter species and their antimicrobial resistance in Latvian broiler chicken production

In the present study Campylobacter species and their antimicrobial resistance in Latvian broiler chicken production was determined. Furthermore, this is the first report on the antimicrobial resistance patterns for Campylobacter isolates from broiler chickens at slaughterhouse and retail level in Latvia. Two biggest Latvian broiler chicken meat producing company products were included in the study. Altogether, 74 randomly selected broiler chicken Campylobacter spp. isolates were analysed for species identification. Campylobacter isolates were obtained during a 12-month period within the Latvian Campylobacter prevalence study in 2010. Colony multiplex PCR was used for all isolates to identify Campylobacter species. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined for 58 Campylobacter spp. isolates. Resistance to one or more antimicrobials was detected in all 58 isolates (100%). A high proportion of the isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin (100%) and nalidixic acid (87.9%). Multidrug resistance, which was determined as resistance to three or more unrelated antimicrobials, was detected in 39 isolates (67.2%). Moreover, all multiresistant isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. Analyses of Campylobacter isolates from two Latvian broiler chicken meat producing companies resulted with significant differences in Campylobacter species; from the company A mainly Campylobacter coli were found, while in the company B Campylobacter jejuni.     

The occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in Estonian broiler chicken production in 2002–2007

The aim of the present study was to monitor the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in broiler chicken production in Estonia from 2002 to 2007. Campylobacter spp. was isolated in 163 (12.3%) of 1320 broiler chicken meat samples form 2002 to 2007 and in 115 (6.3%) of 1819 cecal samples in 2005–2007. Campylobacter jejuni was the most commonly isolated species (98.2%), followed by Campylobacter coli (1.4%) and Campylobacter lari (0.4%). The seasonal peak of Campylobacter contamination was from July to September. Our findings showed that Campylobacter contamination at all levels of broiler chicken production in Estonia was low.     

Prevalence,seasonality and antibiotic susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. isolates of retail broiler meat in Iran

Campylobacter species, are the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. The main route of transmission is generally believed to be via undercooked meat and meat products. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence, seasonality and antibiotic susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. isolates of retail broiler meat in Mashhad, Iran. From January 2013 through December 2013, 360 broiler meat samples were purchased in Mashhad, Iran. Identification of a presumptive Campylobacter species was performed using the cultural method and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the disc diffusion method. Overall, 227 samples (63.1%) were positive for Campylobacter. The most prevalent Campylobacter spp. isolated was Campylobacter jejuni (88.1%). There was a significant seasonal prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in broiler meat in Mashhad, Iran (P < 0.0001). The highest isolation rate was also in summer (78.9%). The antimicrobial susceptibility test showed that 93.4% of the isolates were resistant to one or more antimicrobial agents. Resistances to tetracycline (87.2%) and ciprofloxacin (79.3%) were the most common resistances. The findings of this study showed a relatively high prevalence of Campylobacter contamination and antimicrobial resistance in broiler meats in Mashhad, Iran. To the authors' knowledge this is the first study on the seasonal prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. isolated from broiler meat in Iran.     

Quantitative estimation of Campylobacter cross-contamination in carcasses and chicken products at an abattoir

This study aimed to investigate Campylobacter contamination in carcasses and chicken products derived from a Campylobacter-negative flock when the flock is slaughtered immediately after a Campylobacter-positive flock. The first 2 flocks slaughtered on 10 different dates were investigated at an abattoir. Eighteen of the 20 flocks tested were positive for Campylobacter. A Campylobacter-negative flock was slaughtered immediately after a Campylobacter-positive flock on only 1 of the 10 slaughter dates. In this case, Campylobacter was detected in the carcasses and chicken products originating from the Campylobacter-negative flock, and all the flaA genotypes of these isolates were identical to those present in the caecal contents, carcasses, and chicken products from the Campylobacter-positive flock. The Campylobacter concentrations in the products originating from the Campylobacter-negative flock were: close to the enumeration limit (1.7 log₁₀ cfu/carcass) in the carcass samples; and below the enumeration limit (2.0 log₁₀ cfu/g) in the liver samples. The mean Campylobacter concentrations in the carcasses and liver products originating from the 18 Campylobacter-positive flocks were 3.8 log₁₀ cfu/carcass and 2.6 log₁₀ cfu/g, respectively. While 91% (246/270) of chicken products originating from Campylobacter-positive flocks were positive for Campylobacter, chicken products originating from the remaining Campylobacter-negative flock were free from Campylobacter cross-contamination by slaughter prior to a Campylobacter-positive flock. These results prove that slaughtering Campylobacter-negative flocks does not introduce Campylobacter into the abattoirs and indicate that although carcasses and chicken products originating from the Campylobacter-negative flock were cross-contaminated with Campylobacter from the Campylobacter-positive flock slaughtered immediately before, the Campylobacter contamination levels were lower than those in carcasses and chicken products from Campylobacter-positive flocks. Based on these findings, the reduction of Campylobacter prevalence in broiler flocks should be taken as an effective control measure for preventing introduction of Campylobacter into abattoirs and consequently for reducing Campylobacter prevalence in chicken products in addition to the good hygienic practice at abattoirs and logistic slaughter.     

PCR detection of Campylobacter sp. from turkey carcasses during processing plant in Iran

Turkey carcasses were sampled in one commercial poultry processing plant of Isfahan (Iran) to evaluate the contamination of carcasses to Campylobacter spp. along the processing plant by PCR method. A total of 348 samples were collected during six plants visit from May to December 2007. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 62.1% (216 out of 348) of the samples. Out of 216 Campylobacter isolates, 175 (81.0%) were identified as Campylobacter jejuni and 41 (19.0%) as Campylobacter coli. The occurrences of Campylobacter spp. contamination after defeathering, evisceration and chilling were 75.9%, 77.6% and 32.8% respectively. The results indicate that the fecal recontamination of the avian skin occurred during defeathering and evisceration. However chilling process decreases Campylobacter spp. contamination of the turkey skin significantly.     

Systematic review-meta-analysis of the effect of chilling on Campylobacter spp. during primary processing of broilers

Carcass chilling is a critical control point for Campylobacter spp. during the primary processing of broiler chickens. Our objective was to evaluate chilling intervention research that measured the change in Campylobacter prevalence and concentration on broiler chicken carcasses during primary processing using systematic review-meta-analysis (SR-MA) methodology. Experimental and observational research published in English that investigated impacts of chilling on Campylobacter spp. during primary processing of broiler chicken carcasses were considered. Random-effects MA of air chilling resulted in heterogenous summary effect estimates (mean reduction = 0.74 log₁₀ CFU/carcass, 95% CI: 0.32–1.17, I² = 91.3%; and odds ratio = 7.42, 95% CI: 0.32–174.05, I² = 92.3%). Random-effects MA of immersion chilling with chlorine resulted in heterogenous summary effect estimates (mean reduction = 1.74 log₁₀ CFU/carcass, 95% CI: 1.32–2.16, I² = 86.4%; and odds ratio = 0.50, 95% CI: 0.20–1.28, I² = 90.6%). Effects of immersion chilling with unspecified disinfectants were also determined and varied depending on study design. The SR-MA indicated that air chilling and immersion chilling reduce Campylobacter concentrations. Due to conflicting results across studies, the estimated average effect of air chilling on Campylobacter prevalence is not informative. Immersion chilling with chlorine demonstrated a trend towards reduced Campylobacter prevalence, but this result was not significant; results should be interpreted with caution because the overall methodological soundness of included studies was low. Existing research on the effectiveness of broiler carcass chilling on Campylobacter concentration or prevalence is limited and heterogenous. Results generated herein can inform decisions makers and stakeholders on potential effective chilling interventions, and can be used to inform quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate processing measure impacts on public health.     

Potential of Escherichia coli as a surrogate indicator for postchill broiler carcasses with high Campylobacter counts

Surrogating Campylobacter contamination level in broiler carcasses with other bacterial indicators, used to evaluate the hygienic status of the slaughterline operations, might be stimulation to the broiler meat industry to improve control of Campylobacter during slaughter. Theoretically, Escherichia coli might have some practical merits as a potential indicator for carcasses contaminated with Campylobacter. This study investigates the correlation between the counts of E. coli and Campylobacter in 231 postchill broiler carcasses. The impact of setting a process hygiene target based on E. coli counts on reducing the frequency of carcasses contaminated with Campylobacter at level of ≥3 log₁₀ CFU/g was also investigated. Almost half (48.9% (46/94)) of the carcasses with enumerable Campylobacter (≥1 log₁₀ CFU/g) had E. coli counts between 3 and 4 log₁₀ CFU/g. In addition, 54.8% (17/31) of the carcasses contaminated with Campylobacter of ≥3 log₁₀ CFU/g were correlated with E. coli count range of ≥3 & <4 log₁₀ CFU/g. A theoretical scenario assuming that hygiene and processing measures could allow achieving a target for E. coli that not exceeding 3 log₁₀ CFU/g showed a parallel impact on Campylobacter contamination in broiler carcasses. In such scenario, the overall number of Campylobacter-positive carcasses could be dropped from 40.6% to 12.5%; in addition, 80.6% (25/31) of the carcasses contaminated with Campylobacter of ≥3 log₁₀ CFU/g could be eliminated. Findings from this study reveal that a hygiene target based on E. coli count could be used as an indirect sanitary tool for reducing the level of Campylobacter contamination in postchill broiler carcasses.     

Identification and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter species isolated from poultry meat in Khorasan province,Iran

Campylobacter is the main bacterial cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are the most frequent Campylobacter species isolated from patients with diarrhea. Undercooked poultry meat is one of the main sources of human infection. Contamination of poultry carcasses by Campylobacter during processing occurs directly via intestinal contents or indirectly from bird to bird, via equipment and water. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. isolated from raw poultry meat in Mashhad, Iran. From May 2012 to July 2012, 300 poultry meat samples including chicken (150), turkey (70), partridge (50), and quail (30) were randomly purchased from retail outlets. Using cultural method and a PCR assay 49.7% of poultry meat samples were contaminated with Campylobacter spp. Campylobacter spp. were significantly (P < 0.05) more prevalent in chicken meat (59.3%), followed by partridge (48%), quail (40%), and turkey (34.3%) meat. The most prevalent Campylobacter spp. isolated was C. jejuni (80.8%); the remaining isolates were C. coli (19.3%). Overall, 96.6% Campylobacter isolates were resistant to one or more antimicrobial agent. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was the most common finding (81.9%), followed by resistance to nalidixic acid (73.2%) and tetracycline (67.8%). In conclusion, the results of this study showed the importance of chicken, quail, partridge, and turkey meat as potential sources of Campylobacter spp. infection in people.     

Prevalence,strain identification and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter spp. isolated from slaughtered pig carcasses in Brazil

The aim of this study was to investigate the rate of contamination, species identification and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in pig carcasses during the slaughter process in a slaughterhouse in Brazil. Two hundred and fifty-nine samples were collected at 7 different stages of the slaughter process for Campylobacter determination by both qualitative and quantitative methods. Typical colonies were subjected to API Campy, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and antimicrobial resistance testing. Campylobacter was found in 18.9% of the carcasses and 3.5% of the samples. Dehairing was the slaughter stage with the highest Campylobacter contamination (55.6%). All Campylobacter strains were confirmed by real-time PCR and showed multi-drug resistance to cephalothin, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, tetracycline and trimethoprim. None of the strains were resistant to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, ampicillin and chloramphenicol. Despite the low occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in pig samples, the antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter strains represents a considerable risk for the consumption of pork meat and confirms the need for continuous monitoring of Campylobacter in the pig production chain.     

Prevalence and fluoroquinolones resistance of Campylobacter and Salmonella isolates from poultry carcasses in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil

To investigate the prevalence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in poultry carcasses in state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 60 samples from 6 slaughterhouses were collected over a period of 6 months. A total of 82 Campylobacter isolates were obtained from twenty seven (45%) positive chicken carcasses, including 44 isolates (53.66%) of Campylobacter jejuni and 38 (46.34%) of Campylobacter coli. The identification of all strains was confirmed by PCR. Salmonella was isolated from 4 (6.67%) carcasses by conventional method and was detected in 5 (8.33%) of 60 chicken carcasses by PCR. Two Salmonella Albany and two Salmonella Typhimurium were identified. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was primarily done by the disk diffusion method and later by assessing minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against all the isolates. All the Campylobacter isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin. It was observed high MIC values for enrofloxacin (64 μg/mL) in one C. jejuni and two C. coli strains, and for ciprofloxacin (≥128 μg/mL) in one C. jejuni and three C. coli strains. No Salmonella isolate was resistant to these antibiotics by both methods. These findings reveal a broad extent of fluoroquinolone resistance in Campylobacter isolates from chicken carcasses in Brazil and underline the need for prudent use of these antibiotics in poultry production to minimize the spread of fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter.     

Prevalence of Campylobacter in chicken and chicken by-products retailed in Sapporo area,Hokkaido, Japan

The present work was carried out to study the prevalence of Campylobacter in fresh chicken meat and chicken by-products on retail level in Sapporo, Japan. Out of the 170 samples of chicken meat (breasts and thighs) and chicken by products (wings, livers, gizzards and hearts), 110 (64.7%) were contaminated with Campylobacter. Among the different products, chicken wings showed the highest contamination incidence (77.1%) followed by chicken thighs (70%), while chicken gizzards and hearts showed the lowest contamination incidence (45% and 40%, respectively). Of the 341 Campylobacter isolates, 278 (81.5%) were identified as Campylobacter jejuni and 63 (18.5%) isolates were identified as C. coli. All of the 341 Campylobacter strains identified by the conventional culture methods were further confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which indicated that almost all (99.4%) of the tested strains were also positive by PCR. Screening of 195 selected Campylobacter isolates for determining their antimicrobial resistance indicated that most of the tested strains (73.3%) were resistant to three or more of antimicrobials examined. The study concluded that high proportion of chicken meat and chicken by-products marketed in Sapporo area are contaminated by Campylobacter, most of which are antimicrobial-resistant strains, with a possible risk from such microorganism especially from consumption of undercooked or post-cooking contaminated chicken products.     

Prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. in broilers at retail in the Czech Republic and their antibiotic resistance

Infections caused by thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. are among the most frequent bacterial diseases from food in Europe. An important source of infection is poultry. The aim was to perform the first nationwide study on the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. at retail in the Czech Republic. Samples of chilled and frozen broiler chickens were obtained from supermarkets localized in the eight largest cities in the Czech Republic. From February to November 2009, a total of 120 samples of chilled and 120 samples of frozen poultry were collected and assessed. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed according to the ISO 10272-1:2006 and ISO 10272-2:2006 methods. The microdilution method was used to test the resistance of Campylobacter spp. isolates to selected antibiotics. High prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was detected in chilled poultry (75%). The prevalence was significantly lower (37%) in frozen poultry. The most prevalent species was Campylobacter jejuni detected in 70% of positive findings, followed by Campylobacter coli (18%). In 12% of cases, the samples were contaminated by both C. jejuni and C. coli. The species Campylobacter lari and Campylobacter upsaliensis were not detected. The highest resistance rates were to quinolone antibiotics and ampicillin.     

Case-by-case risk assessment of broiler meat batches: An effective control strategy for Campylobacter

In 2006, the Danish government decided to take new measures to control Salmonella and Campylobacter in Danish and imported retail meat. The legal basis for these new measures was article 14 in the EU food law, which states that food shall not be placed on the market if it is unsafe, among others, for reasons of contamination. This provision allows each member state to make a specific risk assessment of food batches, and decide whether a batch poses an unacceptable risk to the consumer or not. Here we present the basis for the risk assessment model on Campylobacter used in this new approach and the results of more than 3000 batches of broiler meat tested since 2007. The risk was assessed for batches with one or more samples positive for Campylobacter (>100 cfu/g). Reductions in the number of positive batches from 2007 to 2010 were observed for both domestic (from 17% to 7%, p = 0.01) and imported broiler meat (from 39% to 18%, p < 0.0001). During 2007–2010, only relatively few batches were deemed unsafe due to the presence of Campylobacter. The proportion of batches of domestic and imported broiler meat deemed unsafe varied from 0.3% to 1.0% for Danish broiler meat and from 0.2% to 7.7% for imported broiler meat. Still this initiative has been successful in significantly reducing the occurrence of Campylobacter in fresh meat available on the Danish retail market.To our knowledge, this is the first example of a risk based control system that enables quantitative day to day risk assessment of food batches.     

Antimicrobial resistance in thermotolerant Campylobacter isolated from different stages of the poultry meat supply chain in Argentina

The objective of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance in thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. isolated from different stages of the poultry meat supply chain in Argentina. Six poultry meat chains were studied from the reproductive farm to the chicken at the retail. Chickens sampled along each food chain were from the same batch. Samples collected were: a) cloacal samples from hens and chickens on the farm, b) chicken carcasses from the slaughterhouse and retail market. Samples obtained were examined for Campylobacter spp. Antimicrobial resistance was evaluated using the disk diffusion method. Almost all isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid (91.2%) and ciprofloxacin (88.2%). A large proportion of thermotolerant Campylobacter isolated from hens and broilers <1 wk showed resistance to erythromycin in comparison with the rest of the stages of the poultry meat supply chain (P = 0.031). Campylobacter isolated from broilers (both <1 wk and >5 wk) and carcasses at slaughterhouse and at retail showed a proportion of resistance to ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin higher than isolates from hens (P = 0.015 and P = 0.031, respectively). One strain was resistant to all the antibiotics analyzed, and 46.1% of the isolates were resistant to three or more drug classes. Almost 50% of the isolates were resistant to all quinolones tested (ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, and enrofloxacin), and 13.2% were resistant to all quinolones and erythromycin. Campylobacter strains isolated from carcasses at retail showed higher resistance to all quinolones than strains isolated from hens (P = 0.016). These results reflect an alarming situation with potential serious consequences to the public health.     

Low contamination of Campylobacter spp. on chicken carcasses in Minas Gerais state,Brazil: Molecular characterization and antimicrobial resistance

Here, we evaluated Campylobacter contamination on chicken carcasses and phenotypic and genotypic profiles of antimicrobial resistance of the isolated strains. A total of 95 of samples were collected from 19 slaughterhouses from Minas Gerais - Brazil, and analyzed by MPN-PCR method. Campylobacter was found in 16.8% of samples with microbial load ranging from 60 to 184 MPN/carcass. All isolates were resistant to at least 5 (31.2%) of the antimicrobials screened using the disk diffusion method. Thr-86-Ile gyrA mutation, bla_OxA-61 and tet(O) genes were found in 95%, 100% and 40% resistant isolates to ciprofloxacin, ampicillin and tetracycline, respectively. Almost all isolates (90%) showed the three genes required to synthesize the CmeABC efflux system. The use of efflux pump inhibitor (PAβN) resulted in a significant reduction in the MICs of antimicrobials (2–128 fold), indicating the importance of efflux systems in conferring antimicrobial resistance. Campylobacter were detected at low concentrations in Brazilian chicken carcasses. However, high-levels of antimicrobial resistance were observed and associated with several mechanisms. This study provides a baseline survey on contamination of Campylobacter in Brazilian chicken carcasses and its antimicrobial resistance, giving support for actions directed at reducing this pathogen in the food chain.     

Influence of food handlers' compliance with procedures of poultry carcasses contamination: A case study concerning evisceration in broiler slaughterhouses

Campylobacter remains the most commonly reported zoonotic agent worldwide. Reducing the concentration of Campylobacter on chicken meat is seen as the most efficient strategy to diminish the number of human campylobacteriosis cases. Analysis of risk factors related to characteristics of broiler batches and processing conditions could, however, not fully explain differences in impact of processing on contamination levels between slaughterhouses. Our study aimed at investigating whether compliance of food handlers with procedures on setting and controlling evisceration process parameters could explain differences in microbial concentrations on carcasses between slaughterhouses. The study was conducted in two commercial broiler chicken slaughterhouses. Analysis of documentation provided insight in the adequacy of procedures, and observational studies revealed insight in compliance with procedures by using a set of criteria for evisceration control. The frequency of carcasses with visible faecal contamination was counted and Escherichia coli concentrations on carcasses classified based on visible contamination was analysed. E. coli was found to be a valid indicator for Campylobacter during evisceration. Food handlers' knowledge, attitude and practices related to evisceration control tasks were analysed based on a validated questionnaire. Documentation analysis revealed obvious differences in the procedures between slaughterhouses. The observation study revealed that in the slaughterhouse with advanced procedures, the food handlers more often complied with these procedures and a lower frequency of carcasses with visible faecal contamination was observed. Carcasses contaminated with visible faecal spots, even at a low level, carried significantly higher concentrations of E. coli than visibly clean carcasses. Food handlers in both slaughterhouses revealed a good knowledge level. The attitude of food handlers differed between slaughterhouses. In one slaughterhouse, where food handlers complied more frequently with procedures their attitude was at a good level, and practices at good and moderate levels. In the other slaughterhouse the attitude of food handlers was at moderate level and practices at moderate and poor levels. In conclusion, the results from our case study suggest that management factors like availability of adequate monitoring procedures and food handlers' compliance with these procedures may influence the bacterial concentrations on carcasses. Our study demonstrated that compliance with procedures differed between slaughterhouses, and might be associated with faecal contamination of carcasses and thus with higher bacterial concentrations. These results suggest that managerial improvements, supervising and motivating food handlers could be an important control point. To validate the observed relation between compliance with procedures and contamination of carcasses, an intervention study is needed.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella serotypes,Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. isolated from retail chicken and beef,Tehran, Iran

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella serotypes, Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. isolates from fresh chicken and beef meat obtained at retail outlets in Tehran, Iran, were determined. A total of 379 samples (190 chicken and 189 beef) were collected between April 2006 and April 2007 and analyzed for these foodborne pathogens, and isolates were subjected to antimicrobial resistance testing. Salmonella, Campylobacter and Yersinia were isolated from 124 (33%), 109 (29%) and 60 (16%) of the samples, respectively. S. Thompson was the dominant serovar of Salmonella, isolated from 75% to 58% of the Salmonella-positive chicken and beef samples, respectively, with S. Hadar a distant second. Of Campylobacter isolates, 71% were resistant to nalidixic acid and 47% to ciprofloxacin, with 37 (40%) multidrug resistant. A high percentage of Salmonella isolates were resistant to antibiotics, including 82% nalidixic acid, 69% tetracycline, 63% trimethoprim and 52% streptomycin. Eighty-five (68.5%) isolates were multidrug resistant. The most Yersinia spp. were resistant to cephalotin 59 (98%) and ampicillin 31 (52%), with 14 (23%) multidrug resistant. Such baseline information on the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of foodborne pathogens on raw foods of animal origin is needed to not only determine the extent of the problem but also to serve as a point of reference for monitoring changes that occur over time. Such data are essential for use in developing effective risk management strategies.     

Trends in the occurrence and characteristics of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates from poultry meat in Northern Poland

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat available in retail stores in the northern part of Poland during a five-year period (2009–2013). A total of 742 poultry meat samples were collected from butcher shops and supermarkets including the following types of samples: chicken breast filets (n = 133), turkey breast filets (n = 112), chicken wings (n = 135), chicken leg quarters (n = 128), chicken drumsticks (n = 115), and chicken giblets (n = 119).The results indicated that 41.6% of the samples were positive for Campylobacter spp., and Campylobacter jejuni was predominant in this study. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. changed during the study period, decreasing from 60.2% in 2009 to 32% in 2013.The characterization of the isolates revealed a high prevalence of Campylobacter virulence genes. All Campylobacter spp. isolates from poultry meat contained the cadF gene, which is responsible for adherence. The flaA gene, which is involved in motility, was present in all C. jejuni and Campylobacter coli strains. The cdtB, which is associated with toxin production, was present in 93.3% of C. jejuni strains and 89.6% of C. coli strains. The iam gene, which is associated with the invasiveness of Campylobacter spp., was predominant in C. coli strains (95.6%) compared to C. jejuni strains (84.5%).Resistance to four antimicrobials was also examined. The prevalence of resistance among the obtained C. jejuni and C. coli isolates was as follows: ciprofloxacin (62.8% and 72.2%, respectively), tetracycline (42.3% and 42.6%, respectively), erythromycin (3% and 1.7%, respectively) and azithromycin (1%). Multidrug resistance was more frequent among C. jejuni isolates (29.8%) than among C. coli isolates (18.2%).In conclusion, the results of this study demonstrated the importance of poultry meat as a source of Campylobacter spp., especially macrolide-resistant strains. The trend of decreasing Campylobacter spp. occurrence in retail poultry meat in this region of Poland requires further investigation, and monitoring.     

Quantitative analysis of Campylobacter spp. contamination in chicken slaughtering lines by “label tracking method” in eastern China

Campylobacter contamination of poultry meat occurs vastly and inevitably in chicken slaughtering line. The aim of this study was to determine the quantification of Campylobacter spp. contamination levels in chicken slaughtering lines by a “label tracking method”, in eastern China. From the six critical slaughtering steps in 4 slaughtering house, a total of 1260 samples were collected in 236 sampling chicken. Results showed that Campylobacter may propagate in each slaughtering step with a high prevalence (≥83.05%). Both the highest Campylobacter-positive rate and the concentration of isolates were detected at the point of evisceration (97.46%; 2.80 ± 2.52 Log10 CFU/100 cm²), the Campylobacter contamination was mitigated after washing and chilling. However, after flash-freezing, the positive rate of Campylobacter was return to a high value while the concentration was reduced, and frozen storage has been confirmed allowing a mitigation on Campylobacter prevalence, qualitatively and quantitatively. Furthermore, the dynamic variation rule of Campylobacter prevalence obtained from different slaughtering environments was consistent with the rule identified from the corresponding slaughtered poultry. Campylobacter isolates obtained from different slaughtering processes in one slaughter-batch chicken were shown with above 90% homology, pointing to a potential source of contamination. Interventions are needed to minimize Campylobacter contamination, especially in washing, chilling, and frozen storage processes. Our study highlights the quantification of Campylobacter spp. contamination levels in broilers slaughtering line, which would provide quantitative data for the further studies on poultry meat safety control.