Influence of the particle size and phase type of zirconia on the fabrication and residual stress of zirconia/stainless-steel 304 functionally gradient material

Tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (TZP)/stainless steel 304 (SUS304)- and ZT [50 vol % monoclinic zirconia polycrystal (MZP) + 50 vol % TZP]/SUS304-functionally gradient material (FGM) were fabricated by pressureless sintering, and the sintering properties and residual stresses of this proposed FGM were compared with directly jointed material. The defects in the sintered specimens, such as warping, frustum formation, delamination, and cracking, which originated from the different shrinkage and sintering behavior of ceramic and metal, could be controlled by the adjustments in terms of the particle size and phase type of zirconia. The residual stresses induced on the ceramic and metal regions of FGM were characterized by the X-ray diffraction method, which were relaxed as the thickness and number of compositional gradient layers were increased. The residual stresses in TZP/SUS304-FGM show irregular patterns resulting from sintering defects and thermal expansion mismatch. In ZT/SUS304-FGM, compressive stress is induced on the ceramic regions by the volume expansion of MZP that resulted from the t m ZrO₂ phase transformation on cooling. Also, compressive stress is induced on the metal regions by the constraint of warping and frustum formation that must be created to the metal direction caused by the difference of the coefficient of thermal expansions. As a consequence, it has been verified that the residual stresses generated on FGM are dominantly influenced by the thickness and number of compositional gradient layers, and the sintering defects and residual stresses can be controlled by the decrease of the difference of the shrinkage and sintering behavior of each component.     

Influence of microstructure on fracture toughness distribution in ceramic-metal functionally graded materials

This paper deals with the influence of microstructure on fracture toughness distribution in functionally graded materials (FGMs) consisting of partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) and austenitic stainless steel SUS 304. FGMs and non-graded composites (non-FGMs) with fine and coarse microstructures are fabricated by powder metallurgy using PSZ and two kinds of SUS 304 powders. The fracture toughness is determined by conventional tests for several non-FGMs with each material composition and by a method utilizing stable crack growth in FGMs. The obtained results on the fracture toughness are as follows: (1) The fracture toughness increases with an increase in a content of SUS 304 on both FGMs and non-FGMs. (2) On the fracture toughness of the non-FGMs, the influence of microstructure is negligible. (3) On the FGMs, the fracture toughness is higher in the FGM with fine microstructure than in the FGM with coarse microstructure. (4) The fracture toughness of the FGMs is higher than that of the non-FGMs especially in the case of fine microstructure. Finally, the residual stress in the FGMs created in a fabrication process is estimated from the difference in fracture toughness between the FGMs and non-FGMs.     

Thermo-elasto-plastic stresses in functionally graded materials subjected to thermal loading taking residual stresses of the fabrication process into consideration

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) have recently been received with considerable interest, primarily as high temperature resistant materials for space vehicles subjected to high temperature environment. FGMs are one of the composite materials and consist of continuous change of composition of different material components from one surface to the other. FGMs usually fabricated at high temperature at which the FGMs have stress free condition. After the FGMs cooled from the fabrication temperature to the room temperature residual thermal stresses produced. In this paper, elasto-plastic thermal stresses in a rectangular plate (FGP) of a particle reinforced composite FGM are treated by finite element method due to the microscopic combination law when the FGP is subjected to three kinds of temperature conditions, first is cooling from the fabricated temperature to the room temperature, second is heating and last is heating after cooling from the fabricated temperature. In the analysis, the thermal stress constitutive equation of a particle-reinforced composite taking temperature change and damage process into consideration is used. The effects of the particle volume fraction and the three kinds of temperature conditions on the stresses in the matrix, stresses in the particle and macroscopic stress are discussed.     

TiC-Ni梯度功能材料的优化设计

对ＴｉＣ－Ｎｉ梯度功能材料在制备过程中的残余热应力进行了计算机有限元模拟,考察了梯度组成分布指数对热应力大小,最大热应力发生的位置以及纯陶瓷ＴｉＣ侧热应力状态的影响,综合分析了热应力的大小和分布,得到了缓和制备热应力的梯度组成分布指数Ｐ＝１．０的优化设计结果。     

添加剂的膨胀系数对Y-TZP力学性能的影响

通过在Y-TZP中加入不同膨胀系数的玻璃相添加剂,低温烧结得到了具有不同力学性能的试样.建立了薄晶界应力模型,定性地计算了晶界应力,讨论了添加剂的热膨胀系数对Y-TZP陶瓷晶界应力及力学性能的影响.发现小膨胀系数的添加剂使晶界获得压应力,有利于获得较高断裂韧性的Y-TZP陶瓷.     

Combustion Synthesis and Thermal Stress Analysis of TiC–Ni Functionally Graded Materials

Simultaneous combustion synthesis reaction and compaction of Ti, C, and Ni powders under a hydrostatic pressure was carried out to fabricate dense TiC–Ni functionally graded materials (FGMs) in a single processing operation. Scanning-electron microscope (SEM) and microprobe analysis (EPMA) was employed to investigate the microstructure and composition distribution. Experimental results demonstrate that Ni and Ti composition varies continuously and gradually along the thickness of the reacted sample, remarkably different from stepwise type prior to combustion synthesis. The constituents are continuous in microstructure everywhere and no distinct interaction occurs in TiC–Ni FGM. Moreover, the thermal physical and mechanical properties were measured as a function of composition. It was found that the properties of the FGMs were dependent on Ni content. The residual thermal stress of TiC–Ni FGM and dual-laminate non-FGM cooled to room temperature after combustion synthesis has been analyzed by finite element method. TiC–Ni FGM shows distortion and thermal stress relaxation, which is in striking contrast to the layered TiC–Ni non-FGM.     

Properties of multilayered mullite/Mo functionally graded materials fabricated by powder metallurgy processing

Mullite/Mo functionally graded material (FGM) was developed with a powder metallurgy process. Microscopic observations revealed that the microstructure of the mullite/Mo FGM had a gradual stepwise variation. The thermomechanical properties of the mullite/Mo system had graded distributions that depend on the composition variation across the thickness. Thermal shock tests were done on the FGMs and on monolithic mullite. The FGM specimens had better thermal shock resistance than did monolithic mullite. The thermal shock resistance of FGMs was influenced by the sintering-induced residual thermal stress. Cracks caused by thermal shock were observed, and the mechanism of crack formation was discussed.     

金属─陶瓷梯度材料的热弹塑性分析

本文对金属-陶瓷梯度材料的稳态热弹塑性行为进行了研究.文中首先采用平均场和自洽弹塑性微观力学方法预测了金属-陶瓷梯度材料的非弹性性能,然后用非线性有限元法计算了材料制备过程中的热弹塑性应力.结果表明,梯度材料的热弹塑性行为对梯度材料的热应力缓和性能有显著影响.     

金属─陶瓷梯度材料的热弹塑性分析

本文对金属-陶瓷梯度材料的稳态热弹塑性行为进行了研究.文中首先采用平均场和自洽弹塑性微观力学方法预测了金属-陶瓷梯度材料的非弹性性能,然后用非线性有限元法计算了材料制备过程中的热弹塑性应力.结果表明,梯度材料的热弹塑性行为对梯度材料的热应力缓和性能有显著影响.      

Residual stress effect on impact properties of Gr/Al metal matrix composite

The effects of residual stress on the impact properties of the unidirectionally reinforced P 100 Gr/6061 Al metal matrix composites with different thermal histories have been investigated using an instrumented impact test method and scanning electron microscopy. The cantilever impact generally causes tensile failure at the notch and compressive loading on the opposite side of the specimen. The specimens with yield tensile matrix residual stresses have planar fracture surfaces and low impact energy due to the contribution of tensile residual stress. The specimens with small residual stresses have moderate impact energy because debonding between fibre and matrix or fibre/matrix separation also serves as an additional mechanism for energy absorption. The specimens with higher compressive matrix residual stresses have the largest maximum load of all the specimens with the same matrix treatment. The specimen with matrix compressive yield residual stress has the maximum impact energy owing to a stepwise fracture surface. It can be concluded that good impact properties of composite materials can be obtained by choosing a suitable thermal history to modify the deleterious tensile matrix residual stress.     

Evaluation of R-curve behavior of ceramic-metal functionally graded materials by stable crack growth

This paper deals with the fracture toughness and R-curve behavior of ceramic-metal functionally graded materials (FGMs). A possibility of stable crack growth in a three-point-bending specimen is examined based on the driving force and resistance for crack growth in FGMs, and the distribution of fracture toughness or R-curve behavior is evaluated on FGMs fabricated by powder metallurgy using partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) and stainless steel (SUS 304). The materials have a functionally graded surface layer (FGM layer) with a thickness of 1 mm or 2 mm on a SUS 304 substrate. Three-point-bending tests are carried out on a rectangular specimen with a very short crack in the ceramics surface. On the three-point-bending test, a crack is initiated from a short pre-crack in unstable manner, and then it propagates in stable manner through the FGM layer with an increase in the applied load. From the relationship between applied load and crack length during the stable crack growth in the FGM layer, the fracture toughness is evaluated. The fracture toughness increases with an increase in a volume fraction of SUS 304 phase.     

Numerical and experiment analysis of residual stress on magnesium alloy and steel butt joint by hybrid laser-TIG welding

Hybrid welding technology has received significant attention in the welding of dissimilar materials recently. While, great welding residual stress and deformation often result by the difference of coefficient of thermal expansion This study describes the thermal elastic–plastic analysis using finite element techniques to analyze the thermo mechanical behavior and evaluate the residual stresses and welding distortion on the AZ31B magnesium alloy and 304L steel butt joint in laser-TIG hybrid welding. A new coupled heat source model was developed which combined by double-elliptic planar distribution, double-ellipsoid body distribution and Rotary–Gauss body distribution model. From the results, it can be concluded that the temperature distribution at the hybrid weld region is exposed to faster rate of heating and cooling in hybrid welding than TIG. Furthermore, compared to the welding stress distribution on the TIG weld, residual stress σ_y is found about 20% higher on hybrid weld joints, and the residual stress on the 304L steel plate is lower than that on the AZ31B magnesium plate.     

Interaction integrals for thermal fracture of functionally graded materials

This paper addresses finite element evaluation of the non-singular T-stress and mixed-mode stress intensity factors in functionally graded materials (FGMs) under steady-state thermal loads by means of interaction integral. Interaction integral provides an accurate and efficient numerical framework in evaluating these fracture parameters in FGMs under thermal as well as mechanical loads. We use a non-equilibrium formulation and the corresponding auxiliary (secondary) fields tailored for FGMs. Graded finite elements have been developed to account for the spatial gradation of thermomechanical properties. This paper presents various numerical examples in which the accuracy of the present method is verified.     

Preparation of zirconia-toughened bioactive glass-ceramics

Bioactive glass-ceramics toughened by tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (TZP) were prepared by hot-pressing mixed powders of the MgO-CaO-P₂O₅-SiO₂ glass and TZP containing 20 to 80% alumina. The bending strength and the fracture toughness of the composite materials were improved compared with those of the material without TZP. These composites showed high bending strengths (400 to 500MPa) and high fracture toughness ( 2.8MPa m^1/2). The existence of a crack deflection mechanism was observed by scanning electron microscopy. After soaking in simulated physiological solution at 100 °C, no phase transformation from tetragonal to monoclinic of TZP in the composites and no degradation in bending strength occurred.     

Thermal fracture analysis of orthotropic functionally graded materials using an equivalent domain integral approach

A new computational method based on the equivalent domain integral (EDI) is developed for mode I fracture analysis of orthotropic functionally graded materials (FGMs) subjected to thermal stresses. By using the constitutive relations of plane orthotropic thermoelasticity, generalized definition of the J-integral is converted to an equivalent domain integral to calculate the thermal stress intensity factor. In the formulation of the EDI approach, all the required thermomechanical properties are assumed to have continuous spatial variations through the functionally graded medium. Developed methodology is integrated into a fracture mechanics research finite element code FRAC2D using graded finite elements that possess cubic interpolation. Steady-state and transient temperature distribution profiles in orthotropic FGMs are computed using the finite elements based heat transfer analysis software HEAT2D. EDI method is validated and domain independence is demonstrated by comparing the numerical results obtained using EDI to those calculated by an enriched finite element method and to those available in the literature. Single and periodic edge crack problems in orthotropic FGMs are examined in order to study the influences of principal thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity components, relative crack length and crack periodicity on the thermal stress intensity factors. Numerical results show that among the three principal thermal expansion coefficient components, the in-plane component perpendicular to the crack axis has the most significant influence on the mode I stress intensity factor. Gradation profile of the thermal expansion coefficient parallel to the crack axis is shown to have no effect on the outcome of the fracture analysis.     

热环境对FGM壳模态频率的影响

为了推动功能梯度材料(FGM)在高超音速飞行器热防护结构设计中的应用,旨在探讨不同温度场对热防护壳模态频率的影响,提供热防护壳动力学设计参考。从陶瓷金属基FGM的热物性参数模型入手,结合圆柱薄壳能量原理,建立FGM圆柱壳的模态方程。在此基础上,首先分析热物性参数变化规律对FGM壳模态频率的影响,然后探讨考虑热应力后不同热环境下FGM壳模态频率的变化规律。结果表明,FGM物性参数变化对模态频率的影响没有热力耦合影响明显;温度梯度300 K时,物性参数变化对模态频率起主导作用,反之温度梯度300 K时,热应力和热变形对模态频率起主导作用。     

Transient thermo-mechanical analysis of dynamic curving cracks in functionally graded materials

Mixed-mode dynamic crack growth behavior along an arbitrarily smoothly varying path in functionally graded materials (FGMs) under transient thermo-mechanical loading is studied. An asymptotic analysis in conjunction with displacement potentials is used to develop transient thermo-mechanical stress fields around the propagating crack-tip. Asymptotic temperature field equations are derived for exponentially varying thermal properties, and later, these equations are used to derive transient thermo-mechanical stress fields for a curving crack in FGMs. The effect of the transient parameters (loading rate, crack-tip acceleration, and temperature change) and temperature gradient on the maximum principal stress and circumferential stress associated with the propagating crack-tip is discussed. Finally, using the minimum strain energy density criterion, the effect of temperature gradient, crack-tip speeds, and T-stress on crack growth directions is determined and discussed.     

Mixed-mode dynamic crack propagation in graded materials under thermo-mechanical loading

Mixed-mode dynamic crack growth behavior in functionally graded materials (FGMs) under thermo-mechanical loading is studied. Asymptotic analysis in conjunction with displacement potentials has been used to develop thermo-mechanical stress fields for a mixed mode propagating crack in a FGM. The shear modulus, mass density, thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion of the FGM are assumed to vary exponentially along the gradation direction. First, asymptotic temperature fields are derived for an exponential variation of thermal conductivity and later these temperature fields are used in deriving stress fields. Using asymptotic thermo-mechanical stress fields the variation of maximum shear stress, circumferential stress and strain-energy density as a function of temperature around the crack tip are generated. Finally, utilizing the minimum strain-energy density criterion and the maximum circumferential stress criterion, the crack growth direction for various crack-tip speeds, non-homogeneity coefficients and temperature fields are determined.     

A multi-scale model for coupled heat conduction and deformations of viscoelastic functionally graded materials

An integrated micromechanical-structural framework is presented to analyze coupled heat conduction and deformations of functionally graded materials (FGM) having temperature and stress dependent viscoelastic constituents. A through-thickness continuous variation of the thermal and mechanical properties of the FGM is approximated as an assembly of homogeneous layers. Average thermo-mechanical properties in each homogeneous medium are computed using a simplified micromechanical model for particle reinforced composites. This micromechanical model consists of two isotropic constituents. The mechanical properties of each constituent are time–stress–temperature dependent. The thermal properties (coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity) of each constituent are allowed to vary with temperature. Sequentially coupled heat transfer and displacement analyses are performed, which allow analyzing stress/strain behaviors of FGM having time and temperature dependent material properties. The thermo-mechanical responses of the homogenized FGM obtained from micromechanical model are compared with experimental data and the results obtained from finite element (FE) analysis of FGMs having microstructural details. The present micromechanical-modeling approach is computationally efficient and shows good agreement with experiments in predicting time-dependent responses of FGMs. Our analysis forecasts a better design for creep resistant materials using particulate FGM composites.