Adolescent psychopathology: II. Psychosocial risk factors for depression.

In a prospective study of adolescent depression, adolescents (N?=?1,508) were assessed at Time 1 and after 1 yr (Time 2) on psychosocial variables hypothesized to be associated with depression. Most psychosocial variables were associated with current (n?=?45) depression. Formerly depressed adolescents (n?=?217) continued to differ from never depressed controls on many of the psychosocial variables. Many of the depression-related measures also acted as risk factors for future depression (n?=?112), especially past depression, current other mental disorders, past suicide attempt, internalizing behavior problems, and physical symptoms. Young women were more likely to be, to become, and to have been depressed. Controlling for the psychosocial variables eliminated the gender difference for current and future but not for past depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monitoring challenges: A closer look at parental monitoring, maternal psychopathology, and adolescent sexual risk.

The present study sought to examine associations between maternal psychopathology, parental monitoring, and adolescent sexual activity among adolescents in mental health treatment. Seven hundred ninety mother-adolescent dyads recruited from adolescent mental health treatment settings completed audio computer-assisted structured interview assessments examining parent psychiatric symptoms, parental monitoring, and adolescent sexual risk behavior. Path analysis was used to examine the associations between variables of interest. Maternal caregivers who reported more mental health symptoms were more likely to have adolescents who reported recent sex and this relationship was mediated by less parental monitoring. These findings suggest that maternal caregivers with mental health symptoms may need specific interventions that provide assistance and support in monitoring their teens in order to reduce sexual risk taking among adolescents in mental health treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood depression, stressors and parental depression

The relationship between depression and stressors and the relationship between depression in children and depression in their parents were investigated. Depressed children aged 7-11 years (n = 20) were compared with clinical non-depressed children (n = 88) and normal children (n = 55). Children, mothers and fathers in the three groups were tested. Measures included the Children's Depression Inventory, Recent Life Events Scale, Stressor Scale and Beck Depression Inventory. The findings showed that children and mothers in the depressed group reported more stressors than other children and other mothers while fathers of children in the depressed group did not report more stressors. The findings also showed that mothers of depressed children were more depressed than mothers of normal children while there were no differences between the scores of fathers in the three groups.     

Maternal depression, paternal psychopathology, and adolescent diagnostic outcomes.

The authors examined the relationship between maternal depression, paternal psychopathology, and adolescent diagnostic outcomes in a community sample of 522 Australian families. They also examined whether chronic family stress, father's expressed emotion, and parents' marital satisfaction mediated the relationship between parental psychopathology and adolescent outcomes. Mother's education, child's gender, and family income were covaried in all analyses. Results revealed that maternal depression and paternal depression had an additive effect on youth externalizing disorders. In addition, maternal depression interacted with both paternal depression and paternal substance abuse in predicting youth depression but not youth nondepressive disorders. Chronic family stress and father's expressed emotion appeared to mediate the relationship between parental psychopathology and youth depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among parental inbreeding, parental behaviour and offspring viability in oldfield mice

Studies of inbreeding depression have traditionally suffered from two weaknesses. First, they usually confound offspring deficiencies with parental ones; second, they neglect the possible role of behaviour in inbreeding depression. In the present study, I examined the relationship among parental inbreeding, offspring viability and parental behaviour in two subspecies of the monogamous oldfield mouse, Peromyscus polionotus. Parental inbreeding was separated from any offspring inbreeding effects through both experimental design and analysis. Dams performed more parental behaviour than did sires, and maternal behaviour had a stronger effect on offspring survival than did paternal behaviour. Maternal behaviour was more buffered to the effects of inbreeding than was paternal behaviour; that is, parental behaviour of inbred females was not compromised. In contrast, inbred males showed substantial deficits in parental behaviour, but this did not put their offspring at risk. Although inbred females had lower reproductive success than outbred females, this effect was not manifest in terms of lower offspring viability. Therefore, inbreeding depression manifests itself through deficits on traits of adult females other than maternal care. A possible physiological basis for these findings is hypothesized.Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Family structure and depression in female college students: Effects of parental conflict, decision-making power, and inconsistency of love.

Based on earlier findings that maladjusted Ss come from families with high interparental conflict and dominance by the parent opposite in sex to the S's, a model was developed that predicted depression in female college students. Depression was predicted to depend on parental conflict, inconsistent love from the father, and the Conflict?×?Dominance?×?Father's Inconsistency interaction. Questionnaire measures of father's and mother's inconsistency, parental conflict, and relative decision-making power (dominance) were completed by 98 college women. Averages of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and a reworded form measuring worst past depression were entered into a hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Significant relations were found between average depression and (a) parental conflict, (b) father's inconsistency, and (c) mother's inconsistency. Father's inconsistency accounted for twice as much independent variance as mother's inconsistency. The predicted triple interaction approached significance (p?=?0.06), with inconsistent love from the father in high-conflict, paternally dominated families associated with the greatest vulnerability to depression. Consistent paternal love, low conflict, and paternal dominance were associated with the least vulnerability to depression. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of children of alcoholics: Putative risk factors, substance use and abuse, and psychopathology.

A sample of 253 children of alcoholics (COAs) and 237 children of nonalcoholics (non-COAs) were compared on alcohol and drug use, psychopathology, cognitive ability, and personality. COAs reported more alcohol and drug problems, stronger alcohol expectancies, higher levels of behavioral undercontrol and neuroticism, and more psychiatric distress in relation to non-COAs. They also evidenced lower academic achievement and less verbal ability than non-COAs. COAs were given Diagnostic Interview Schedule alcohol diagnoses more frequently than non-COAs. The relation between paternal alcoholism and offspring alcohol involvement was mediated by behavioral undercontrol and alcohol expectancies. Although gender differences were found, there were few Gender?×?Family History interactions; the effects of family history of alcoholism were similar for men and women. When gender effects were found, they showed greater family history effects for women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Security, emotionality, and parental depression: A commentary.

New studies suggest that changes in family environments due to parental depression increase children's risk for psychopathology. However, some aspects of family and child functioning may not be adversely affected. Future directions include (a) more precise definition of the response processes that are at risk in children and (b) differentiation of response processes linked with different dysfunctional family processes (e.g., parenting, marital conflict). Little elaboration of conceptual models has occurred in response to recent findings. Emotional security provides an explanatory construct for how certain family environments associated with parental depression increase children's risk for psychopathology. New directions are outlined for the study of relations between family environments associated with parental depression and children's emotional security. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family risk factors for child and adolescent suicidal behavior.

In this review, the author evaluates the empirical support for the claims that various aspects of family dysfunction are risk factors for completed suicide or suicidal symptoms in childhood or adolescence. There is consistent evidence that a history of physical or sexual abuse is a risk factor and some evidence for other risk factors, including poor family or parent-child communication, loss of caregiver to separation or death, and psychopathology in first-degree relatives. However, the researchers of the vast majority of studies did not attend to whether the putative risk factors preceded the development of suicidal symptoms; thus, most of the claims regarding family risk factors are not justified by their research designs and findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familial risk for alcoholism and self-reported psychopathology.

Three groups of young men varying in familial alcoholism risk (high density, high risk [HDHR]; low density, high risk [LDHR]; and low risk [LR]) were compared on the 11 clinical scales of the Personality Assessment Inventory. Significant group differences were found on 9 scales, with scores of the HDHR group exceeding those of the other 2 groups. No differences were found between the LDHR and LR groups. When the proportion with pathological scores per scale was examined, significant group differences were still revealed on 7 scales. The HDHR group exceeded the other 2 groups, but the LDHR group also exceeded the LR group on several scales. These findings support the need to more finely characterize familial alcoholism risk than is provided by the typical high-risk-low-risk dichotomy. Finally, statistically controlling for normal variations in response style reduced the number of group differences, although the same patterns persisted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective study of risk factors for unipolar depression.

The purpose of this study was to identify variables that are antecedents for unipolar depression. Information regarding a number of sociodemographic and psychosocial variables was collected on a community sample of adults (N?=?998), 562 of whom were interviewed and diagnosed according to Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Research Diagnostic Criteria procedures and received a second assessment on most of the variables. The average time elapsed between Time 1 and Time 2 was 8.3 months. Depressive symptomatology was also assessed with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale CES-D. A number of variables emerged, which predicted both the development of an episode of depression and elevated CES-D scores. These include reporting an elevated level of depressive and other symptoms and having experienced an elevated level of stress. Variables that are predictive of developing an episode of depression include young age, being female, and having had a previous episode of depression. The presence of depressogenic cognitions was uniquely predictive of an elevation of depression symptoms as measured by the CES-D. Virtually no variables demonstrated a significant moderating effect on the stress–depression relation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between the Pleasant Events Schedule, depression, and other aspects of psychopathology.

Studied the relations between the Mood Related subscale of the Pleasant Events Schedule (PES), depression, and other psychopathology. 100 psychiatric inpatients and outpatients (mean age 35.7 yrs) had diagnoses of either major, nonmajor, or no depression. All Ss completed the PES, the Beck Depression Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and a Dutch personality questionnaire. Results show that the PES correlated negatively with depression as well as with anxiety and (social) neuroticism. Principal components analysis revealed 2 factors, negative and positive affect. The latter was dominated by PES scores. Using factor scores, the 3 diagnostic groups could be meaningfully discriminated. It is concluded that depression may be better described using 2 affect dimensions rather than 1. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of social competence among children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents: Role of parental psychopathology, parental warmth, and self-regulation.

This study tested a conceptual model predicting children's social competence in a sample of children with alcoholic and non-alcoholic parents. The model examined the role of parents' alcohol diagnoses, depression, and antisocial behavior at 12–18 months of child age in predicting parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years of child age. Parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was hypothesized to predict children's self-regulation and externalizing behavior problems at 3 years. Parenting, self-regulation, and behavior problems were expected to predict social competence in kindergarten. Structural equations modeling was supportive of this model. Fathers' alcohol diagnosis was associated with lower warmth/sensitivity. Lower maternal warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was predictive of lower child self-regulation at 3 years. Parenting, self-regulation, and externalizing behavior problems were predictive of social competence in kindergarten, although associations varied by reporter (parents or teacher). There was a direct association between fathers' alcohol diagnosis and father reports of social competence, and between fathers' depression and teacher reports of social competence. The study elucidates developmental processes in predicting social competence and the role of fathers' alcoholism and associated risk factors in this process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of depression risk factors: A solution-focused approach.

M. Seligman (1990) postulated that 3 meaning frames determine whether temporary sad feelings persist and eventually evolve into clinical depression: the permanence, pervasiveness, and personal causation of negative or stressful events. Successful treatment is thought to consist of interventions that modify these 3 meaning frames that contribute to depression. The authors combine Seligman's observations with 3 types of intervention questions used by therapists in solution-focused psychotherapy: exception, outcome, and coping and/or externalization questions. It is suggested that use of certain classes of intervention from solution-focused psychotherapy may shorten and potentiate treatment of depression. Solution-focused psychotherapy techniques are illustrated using a case study of a 69-yr-old man treated for depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family functioning and interactive patterns in the context of infant psychopathology.

Family functioning and mother–infant relational patterns were examined in 38 clinic-referred infants and 34 matched non-referred infants. Referred infants were diagnosed with the Diagnostic Classification for Zero to Three. On the family level, referred families showed significantly lower family functioning in all domains of emotional and instrumental communication, regardless of the specific infant's diagnoses. On the dyadic level, referred mothers were more intrusive and their infants were more withdrawn during dyadic interactions. Clinic-referred mothers reported higher levels of phobia and depression. Global family functioning was predicted by the infant's clinical status, maternal intrusiveness, and maternal psychopathology. Infant mental health clinicians need to address both family level and dyadic level of functioning, regardless of the reason for the infant's referral. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familial risk factors to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Parental psychopathology and maternal parenting.

In a sample of 177 clinic-referred children (aged 7–13 yrs), an association was found between a diagnosis of conduct disorder (CD) and several aspects of family functioning: maternal parenting (supervision and persistence in discipline) and parental adjustment (paternal antisocial personality disorder and paternal substance abuse). Children with oppositional defiant disorder were intermediate to families of children with CD and clinic control children on all variables, but differed from control children only in having a higher rate of paternal substance abuse and paternal antisocial personality disorder (APD). When both parental APD and deviant maternal parenting were entered into 2?×?2 logit-model analyses predicting CD, only parental APD was significantly associated with CD, and no interactions between parental adjustment and maternal parenting were found. The importance of these findings for understanding the etiology of CD and for disentangling correlated risk factors in future studies is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple jeopardy: risk and protective factors among addicted mothers' offspring

Objectives of this study were to ascertain risk and protective factors in the adjustment of 78 school-age and teenage offspring of opioid- and cocaine-abusing mothers. Using a multimethod, multiinformant approach, child outcomes were operationalized via lifetime psychiatric diagnoses and everyday social competence (each based on both mother and child reports), and dimensional assessments of symptoms (mother report). Risk/protective factors examined included the child sociodemographic attributes of gender, age, and ethnicity, aspects of maternal psychopathology, and both mother's and children's cognitive functioning. Results revealed that greater child maladjustment was linked with increasing age, Caucasian (as opposed to African American) ethnicity, severity of maternal psychiatric disturbance, higher maternal cognitive abilities (among African Americans) and lower child cognitive abilities (among Caucasians). Limitations of the study are discussed, as are implications of findings for future research.     

Family dysfunction, parental attachment, and career search self-efficacy among community college students.

The relationship between family dysfunction, parental attachment, and career search self-efficacy was examined using a sample of 220 community college students. For the total sample, attachment to mother and father, and degree of family dysfunction combined to account for 14% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. Data were analyzed separately for men and women, which yielded results consistent with the literature. For women, attachment to mother and degree of family dysfunction combined to account for 17% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. For men, attachment to mother was the only significant predictor and accounted for 9% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. Implications for research and practice are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)