Perceived counselor characteristics, client expectations, and client satisfaction with counseling.

Examined (a) the relationship between perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness and client satisfaction; (b) the relationships between specific client expectations on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction; and (c) the effects of actual counselor experience level on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction. The 55 counselors who participated in the study were either beginning or advancing practicum students, doctoral-level interns, or PhD counselors; clients were 72 students who sought help at a university counseling center. Clients completed an Expectations About Counseling (EAC) questionnaire before entering counseling, as well as the Counseling Evaluation Inventory (CEI) and Counselor Rating Form (CRF) after several weeks of counseling. CRF and CEI were correlated, but EAC scores were not strongly related to the CEI or CRF scores. Actual counselor experience level did not differentially affect CEI or CRF scores. Findings are discussed in terms of several variables (e.g., legitimate power, source variables, and client satisfaction) that may differentially affect the influence process over time. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of the cognitions stimulated by the items on the Expectations About Counseling-Brief Form: An analysis of construct validity.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine three aspects of the construct validity of the Expectations About Counseling—Brief form (EAC—B): whether it measures expectations about counseling rather than other related constructs, whether the test items are clearly understood, and whether the test maintains respondents' attention. This was accomplished by analyzing the cognitions of 16 male and 14 female undergraduates to determine which thought processes were being elicited by the EAC—B. Each item elicited statements about expectations from 70% of the respondents, whereas statements about related constructs essentially occurred at a chance level. These results support the conclusion that each item on the EAC—B possesses at least minimal validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies for counseling in relation to premature termination.

Expectations about counseling may be one process variable which influences early premature termination. Expectations About Counseling questionnaire (EAC) scores of clients who continued in counseling to a mutually agreed-upon termination point were compared with those of clients who terminated therapy after one session without counselor agreement. Groups were equivalent in sex ratios and matched for problem type. There were no differences in precounseling expectations for premature versus appropriate terminations regardless of problem type. Results are discussed in terms of suggestions for further research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A methodological note: Do students expect what clients do?

Research on expectations about counseling is complicated by use of noncomparable measurement techniques, varied definitions, and nonclient samples. The Expectations About Counseling (EAC) is an instrument that has been used in several studies and may help standardize research on expectations. The present study used the short form of the EAC to compare expectations of 78 university student nonclients, student clients, and nonstudent clients. Although no statistically significant differences were found among the groups, results must be viewed with caution. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Am I the fifth horseman of the apocalypse? Comment on Galassi, Crace, Martin, James, and Wallace (1992) and comments on research concerning expectations about counseling.

The criticisms by J. P. Galassi et al (see record 1992-17938-001) of H. E. Tinsley and B. L. Benton (1978) and the Expectations About Counseling instrument are shown to be unfounded, problems with the terminology of Galassi et al are discussed, and the technical adequacy and findings of Galassi et al are analyzed. Problems that have occurred frequently in research on expectations about counseling are attributed to lack of programmatic research, failure to critically analyze existing literature, and use of instruments designed for a single study. The devotion of too much attention to "let's change a word" and "let's change a demographic variable" research is criticized. More effort is called for (1) to identify and measure theoretically relevant expectations, (2) to examine the relations between expectations and related constructs, (3) to determine how expectations can be modified, and (4) to investigate the relation of expectations to aspects of the counseling process and outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations about counseling in Yucatán, Mexico: Toward a "Mexican psychology."

Conducted a study of client expectations of psychological services in Yucatán, Mexico, under the sponsorship of a grant from the Organization of American States. The Expectations about Counseling–Brief form (EAC-B) questionnaire was translated and administered to 488 subjects across age, sex, and experience with psychological services. Subsequent analyses supported the reliability and robustness of the Spanish EAC-B, with factor structure similar to the EAC-B in English. Some relation was found among age, sex, prior counseling experience, and expectations about counseling. Implications of these data for future research and comparison with U.S. subjects are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Videotape playback: Analysis of a new technique for counseling.

Examined the effects of videotape playback on client verbal behavior and evaluation of counseling. No significant differences were found between undergraduates receiving videotape playback counseling and traditional counseling in verbal behavior, evaluation of the counseling process, or the 4 factors assessed by the Counseling Evaluation Inventory. Implications for the use of videotape playback in counseling are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality differences and expectations about counseling.

We assessed the relation between conceptual system functioning and expectations about counseling and extend earlier research in 2 ways: (a) Client expectations are linked to a stable personality dimension, and (b) the conceptual system, rather than the conceptual level, model provided the theoretical rationale. Implications of these extensions are discussed. Measures of client conceptual stage and their expectations were taken immediately prior to initial meetings with counselors. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and a discriminant analysis of data from 60 clients revealed theoretically consistent separation between the 4 stages of conceptual functioning on 2 dimensions of expectations about counselor characteristics, attitudes and behaviors. The need to consider the influence of conceptual functioning in counseling process research is supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining multicultural counseling competencies of graduate students in psychology.

This investigation examined the multicultural counseling competencies of graduate students in counseling and clinical psychology programs. A national sample of 344 students participated. The participants completed the Multicultural Counseling Inventory (G. R. Sodowsky, R. C. Taffe, T. B. Gutkin, & S. L. Wise, 1994) and a demographic questionnaire. Results indicated that counseling psychology students rated themselves as more multiculturally competent than clinical psychology students in three of the four multicultural competency areas. Different educational and clinical variables were predictive of multicultural counseling competencies for the two groups. Findings are discussed in terms of education and training in graduate psychology programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of matching treatment approaches and personality types in group vocational counseling.

40 university students were identified as either people oriented (PO) or task oriented (TO), on the basis of their responses to the Vocational Preference Inventory. Half of the PO Ss were given group vocational counseling using a learning through interaction method (LTI), and the other half were counseled through a learning through individual problem solving method (LTIPS). Similarly, half of the TO Ss were counseled through LTI and half through LTIPS. Counseling approaches that were congruent with personality types (i.e., LTIPS approach with TO Ss and LTI with PO Ss) were more effective than counseling approaches that did not match personality type. Effectiveness was measured in terms of amount of occupational information sought by Ss, Ss' evaluation of the group experience, and scores on the Attitude scale of the Career Maturity Inventory. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies for counselors in relation to subject gender traits.

85 male and 97 female undergraduates completed questionnaires on extended personal attributes and expectations about counseling (EAC). Equations for 9 EAC scales provided significant prediction, with femininity accounting for most of the explained variance. Contrary to results of prior studies, sex accounted for little variance. Neither masculinity nor any of the interaction terms had any effect. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor touch on counseling outcome.

Examined the effect(s) of counselor touch on client evaluation of counseling and level of self-exploration. 25 counselors and 100 undergraduates participated. Nonverbal condition (touch, no touch), sex of counselor, and sex of client were the factors. Each S participated in a single individualized vocational counseling session to discuss their performance on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. All 50-min counseling sessions included 6 clusters of verbal and nonverbal procedures that were administered by counselors at predetermined periods of time. Data were collected by means of questionnaires (Counseling Evaluation Inventory and Depth of Self-Exploration Scale) and audiotapes that were submitted to independent raters for analysis. Contrary to previous studies, counseling touch did not have a significant effect. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality correlates of vocational counseling outcome.

Investigated the relationship between scores on the Adjective Check List (ACL), Educational Interest Inventory (EII), and the Vocational Decision-Making Checklist (VDMC) and several vocational counseling outcome measures. 60 male undergraduates unsure about their choice of major received either model-reinforcement counseling, traditional counseling, or no counseling. Correlations between the ACL and EII scores, change in pre- and postcounseling certainty of major, and change in VDMC scores were analyzed. Results suggest that personality factors are related to progress in vocational counseling. The improving client, in general, appears to be outgoing, self-confident, and to have a tendency to be controlling. Data also suggest that change as a result of the traditional, more nondirective counseling may require more self-confidence and a greater ability to assert oneself in interpersonal situations than is necessary with a behavioral counseling approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mistrust level and its effects on counseling expectations in Black client-White counselor relationships: An analogue study.

Black clients' high dropout rates from counseling with White counselors are often explained by the clients' lack of trust for Whites. This analogue study examined the effects of cultural mistrust on counseling expectations for Black clients assigned to both Black and White counselors. Subjects completed the Cultural Mistrust Inventory (an inventory designed to measure Blacks' mistrust of Whites) and the Expectations About Counseling questionnaire. In a 2 (subject sex)?×?2 (subject mistrust level)?×?2 (counselor race) factorial design, client mistrust level interacted significantly with counselor race. When assigned to a White instead of a Black counselor, highly mistrustful Blacks expected the counselor to be less accepting, trustworthy, and expert; they also expected less in terms of counseling outcome. We discuss the possible implications of these findings for counseling practice and the need for White counselors to be sensitive to the cultural mistrust issue when working with Black clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling expectations of rational, intuitive, and dependent decision makers.

In order to examine the relation between decision-making style and counseling expectations, the Assessment of Career Decision-Making Styles Scale and the Expectations About Counseling (Form B) Questionnaire were administered to 416 volunteers. Of these volunteers, 208 had rational, 26 intuitive, and 13 dependent decision-making styles. The remaining mixed types were not included in the data analysis. Following a significant multivariate analysis, univariate analyses of variance identified significant differences on four of the subscales: Acceptance, Nurturance, Attractiveness, and Expertise. Pair-wise comparisons using Duncan's multiple-range test indicated that those with dependent styles scored significantly higher than the rationals on Acceptance and Nurturance. The intuitives scored significantly higher than the rationals and the dependents on Attractiveness. Both the intuitives and dependents scored higher than the rationals on Expertise. Implications of these findings are discussed with regard to counseling interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Affirmative Counseling Self-Efficacy Inventory (LGB-CSI): Development, validation, and training implications.

Five studies on the development of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Affirmative Counseling Self-Efficacy Inventory (LGB-CSI) were conducted. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of an initial pool of 64 items yielded 5 factors that assess counselor self-efficacy to perform lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) affirmative counseling behaviors (Application of Knowledge, Advocacy Skills, Self-Awareness, Relationship, and Assessment Skills). The LGB-CSI evidenced high internal consistency; however, low test-retest reliability was found over a 2-week period. Convergent validity was supported by correlations with measures of general counseling self-efficacy and attitudes toward LGB individuals. Discriminant validity was evidenced by an absence of relations between the LGB-CSI and measures of social desirability, self-deceptive positivity, and impression management. Construct validity was supported by findings indicating varying levels of self-efficacy commensurate with status in the field. Recommendations for training interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies for counselors as a function of counselor gender specification and subject sex.

20 male and 20 female undergraduates were randomly selected at each of 2 time periods for inclusion in each of 3 experimental groups: male counseling psychologist (CP), female CP, and gender-unspecified CP. Ss filled out a modified version of the Expectations About Counseling (EAC) questionnaire that included a reference to the sex of the CP for the appropriate groups. An additional sample of 92 Ss was enlisted to aid in a manipulation check; on completion of the EAC, they were queried as to whether the sex of the CP had been mentioned. Results indicate that specification of the counselor's gender had no significant effect on Ss' expectations, but that sex of S was a potent factor. Females expected stronger facilitative conditions, more personal involvement in counseling, and a more positive counseling outcome than did males. The importance of Ss' sex and interpersonal style and the CP's professional role in expectation-setting processes are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor gender, type of problem, and expectations about counseling.

100 male and 100 female college students were assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions—female counseling psychologist (CP)/career or vocational concern (CVC); male CP/CVC; female CP/person concern (PC); or male CP/PC—and responded to an expectations-about-counseling questionnaire that included sex of CP and type of problem. Results of a MANOVA revealed a significant main effect for S Gender; no other main effects were found. Females had significantly higher expectations for the client attitudes/behaviors of motivation, openness, and responsibility and for the CP attitudes of acceptance, confrontation, and genuineness. Females also expected more attractive and trustworthy CPs than did males, expected more immediacy in the counseling process, and had a more positive outcome expectancy. Males expected CPs to be more directive and self-disclosing than did females. The 2 groups did not differ in their expectations for CP empathy, expertness, and concreteness. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential client attractiveness in a counseling analogue.

Investigated the effects of variations in conceptual complexity level of counselor and client on counselor attraction to the client. 40 counselor trainees (characterized as having either high or low conceptual level—Paragraph Completion Test) in 2 groups rated the attractiveness of clients following each of 2 counseling analog tasks in which the client was depicted as exhibiting high or low conceptual level. Results of a 2?×?2 analysis of variance (Counseling Complexity?×?Analog Complexity) indicated only that the more complex clients were more attractive across both levels of counselor complexity. Results are discussed in terms of 2 models of interpersonal attraction and the implication for socioeconomic status, as it relates to conceptual level, as a factor in counselor–client role constraints. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)