Role of social–cognitive expectations in high school students' mathematics-related interest and performance.

This study tested path models of academic interest and performance that were derived from social-cognitive theory. Two samples of high school students took part in the study: 151 geometry students and 145 advanced algebra students. Measures of objective math ability, perceived sources of efficacy information, outcome expectations, course-specific self-efficacy, interest in mathematics and science activities, and math course grades were obtained. Results were generally consistent with causal models in which (a) several types of direct and vicarious experience give rise to math self-efficacy percepts, (b) self-efficacy and outcome expectations predict subject matter interest, and (c) self-efficacy partially mediates the effect of ability on course grades. Implications for the further extension of social-cognitive theory to career and educational research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance.

Manipulated self-efficacy and task strategies in the training of 209 undergraduates under high strategy, low strategy, and control conditions. Ss underwent 5 trials and were administered a self-efficacy scale after each trial. Results show that ability, past performance, and self-efficacy were the major predictors of goal choice. Ability, self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies were related to task performance. Self-efficacy was more strongly related to past performance than to future performance but remained a significant predictor of future performance even when past performance was controlled. Self-efficacy ratings for moderate to difficult levels of performance were the best predictors of future performance; a reanalysis of 2 previous goal-setting studies by the first author confirms this finding. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of task experience and individual factors on training-emphasis ratings.

This study included 2 sets of analyses examining the impact of task experience and individual factors on task ratings of training emphasis. Aerospace ground equipment mechanics in the US Air Force completed surveys 8 and 12 mo after formal training. Mechanics rated how much formal training they would recommend for a sample of tasks. In the cross-sectional analyses, with tenure constant at 12 mo, an individual's breadth of experience (number of tasks performed) and level of self-efficacy were found to have significant effects on training-emphasis ratings. The change analyses examined factors influencing changes in ratings of training emphasis from 8 to 12 mo on the job. Results indicate that mechanics whose breadth of experience or self-efficacy perceptions increased over time tended to increase their ratings of training emphasis. Implications for understanding the task analysis rating process are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-efficacy-enhancing interventions on the math/science self-efficacy and career interests, goals, and actions of career undecided college students.

This investigation evaluated the effects of both performance accomplishment and vicarious learning experiences on the math/science self-efficacy and career interests, goals (i.e., aspirations), and actions (i.e., choice of major and enrollment in courses) of career undecided college students. Undergraduates who possessed at least a moderate level of math ability and who self-reported at least a moderate level of career undecidedness were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment conditions: performance accomplishment only, vicarious learning only, combined treatment (performance accomplishment and vicarious learning), or the control group. Pre- and posttreatment assessments of participants' math/science self-efficacy, vocational interests, career aspirations, and career choice actions (i.e., choice of major and courses) revealed significant effects of the performance accomplishment and combined treatments on several of the dependent variables. Theoretical and counseling implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of self-esteem, success–failure, and self-consciousness on task performance.

Research has demonstrated that task performance of low self-esteem individuals (low SEs) suffers in the presence of self-focusing stimuli (e.g., a mirror). The present study determined if such stimuli must inevitably have adverse effects on low SEs. It was reasoned that if low SEs were provided with success feedback from a previous task, then the nature of their self-consciousness would be altered on a subsequent task. Specifically, low SEs should attend more to positive and less anxiety-provoking aspects of themselves than would low SEs who received failure feedback from the previous task. Under the former condition, low SEs' subsequent task performance was expected to improve. For high SEs, who typically perform well, success–failure feedback was expected to have little effect on subsequent performance. 90 undergraduates high and low in chronic self-esteem received false success or failure feedback from a task and completed a concept formation task in either the presence or absence of a mirror. Whereas high SEs performed equally well following success or failure, low SEs in the success condition performed significantly better than low SEs in the failure condition. This Self-Esteem?×?Prior Feedback interaction was significant in the presence of the mirror but not its absence. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task performance and contextual performance on systemic rewards.

Evidence from 2 samples of Air Force mechanics supported the hypothesis that contextual performance affects employees' career advancement and rewards over time. Results of hierarchical regressions controlling for experience showed task performance and contextual performance each predicted systemic rewards. Each facet explained separate variance in promotability ratings over 2 years. In both samples, contextual performance explained separate variance in informal rewards but task performance did not. Task performance explained incremental variance in career advancement 1 year later but contextual performance did not. Analyses using correlations corrected for unreliability suggest these results cannot be attributed to measurement error. Contextual performance still explained separate variance in informal rewards, and task performance explained distinct variance in career advancement a year later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of persistence at a task to expectation of success and achievement related motives.

This investigation examines the effects of S's motivation to achieve success or avoid failure (measured from TAT), his preception of the degree of difficulty of the task, and his probability of success upon continued attempts (persistence) to solve a given problem. Substantiating hypotheses derived from Atkinson's theory (1957, 1958), the results indicated that persistence occurs when motivation to achieve and anticipation of success are high, or when motivation to avoid failure and anticipation of failure are high. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mexican American middle school students' goal intentions in mathematics and science: A test of social cognitive career theory.

This study examined whether sociocontextual and sociocognitive variables explained the math/science goals of 409 Mexican American youth using a modified version of R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett's (1994) social cognitive career theory. Results from structural equation modeling indicated that the hypothesized model explained a significant amount of variance in math/science goals for both Mexican American girls and boys. Findings suggested that gender did not moderate relations among the variables in the hypothesized model. Results also suggested that most of the social cognitive career theory propositions tested were supported. Specifically, social class predicted math/science past performance accomplishments. Math/science past performance accomplishments and perceived parent support predicted math/science self-efficacy. Furthermore, math/science self-efficacy predicted math/science outcome expectations, and together with math/science interests, these sociocognitive variables predicted math/science interests and goals. Contrary to expectations, generation status, Anglo orientation, and Mexican orientation did not predict math/science past performance accomplishments, and past performance accomplishments did not predict math/science outcome expectations. Furthermore, Anglo orientation and perceived social support from parents, teachers, classmates, and a close friend did not predict math/science goals. Suggestions for future research and implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A process analysis.

Three sources of competence information were manipulated in an experiment in which 120 male 15–18 yr olds worked on a word game, after being given an expectancy for success and an objective standard for average performance, to investigate the process through which competence information affects intrinsic motivation. It was predicted that performance cues that differed in terms of objectivity and timing during task performance would affect task interest differentially and that the effects of competence information would vary according to achievement orientation. Normative feedback was provided after task completion. Results show that the effects of the cues on self-efficacy and task interest were generally consistent with A. Bandura's (1982) self-efficacy model of intrinsic motivation. Objective information provided before the game was optimal in enhancing self-efficacy and interest for all Ss. High achievers responded positively to competence cues, whereas cues providing positive feedback about ability reduced interest for low achievers. Path analytic process analysis indicated that mediational structures also varied according to achievement orientation. Competence information enhanced high achievers' valuation of competence which had a positive causal impact on subsequent intrinsic motivation. In contrast, efficacy expectations mediated increases in intrinsic motivation for low achievers. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between metamemory, memory predictions, and memory task performance in adults.

A cross-sectional sample of adults recalled categorized word lists and narrative texts. Subjects gave performance predictions before each of 3 recall trials for each task. Older subjects had poorer memory performance and also predicted lower performance levels than did younger subjects. The LISREL models suggested (a) direct effects of memory self-efficacy (MSE) on initial predictions; (b) upgrading of prediction–performance correlations across trials, determined by direct effects of performance on subsequent predictions; (c) significant effects of a higher order verbal memory factor on MSE; and (d) an independent relationship of text recall ability to initial text recall performance predictions. These results lend support to the theoretical treatment of predictions as task-specific MSE judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of methylphenidate and expectancy on performance, self-evaluations, persistence, and attributions on a social task in boys with ADHD.

This study examined the effects of 0.3 mg/kg methylphenidate (MPH) and expectancy regarding medication on the performance and persistence of 137 boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a get-acquainted dyadic interaction with a peer, using a balanced-placebo design. Boys in 4 groups—administered placebo or MPH crossed with being told they received placebo or MPH—interacted with child confederates in experimental situations in which social success and failure were manipulated. In contrast with studies of academic persistence, MPH did not affect boys' task persistence or performance. Boys gave more positive self-evaluations and talked more in the success condition as compared with the failure condition. Boys attributed success to effort and ability and failure to task difficulty, and neither MPH nor expectancy affected this pattern. These findings are consistent with other studies in failing to find debilitating effects of MPH or medication expectancies on ADHD boys' attributions or self-evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of elementary school children's private speech to behavioral accompaniment to task, attention, and task performance.

Tested assumptions drawn from Vygotsky's (1934 [1962]) theory about the development of private speech (PS) and its relationship to task performance, attention, and motor behaviors accompanying task orientation. 75 1st and 3rd graders were observed in their classrooms while engaged in math seatwork. Results show a developmental trend toward increasingly task-relevant and less audible PS and a shifting relationship of intelligence to PS with grade, which was consistent with Vygotsky's assumption that PS undergoes a curvilinear course of development that is governed by cognitive maturity. The relationship of PS to task success, as measured by classroom assignment performance and scores on the mathematics portion of the Stanford Achievement Test, varied with grade and mental ability (Cognitive Abilities Test—Primary Battery). Findings suggest that using the type of PS that is in natural developmental ascendence, given the child's level of intellectual maturity, is positively related to performance, but reverting to less mature forms is negatively predictive. Use of task-relevant PS predicted greater task attentional focus and reduction of extraneous, tension-reducing motor behaviors. Findings support Vygotsky's theory of the functional significance of PS in children's cognitive development and the validity of the theory for children's task-related behaviors in natural classroom learning contexts. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation in a task situation as a function of ability and control over the task.

102 psychology students participated in the task of constructing and validating an "academic aptitude test." Training (level of ability) and amount of control over the task were manipulated in a 2 X 2 factorial design. For untrained Ss, performance was positively related to control. The performance of trained Ss was negatively related to control, contrary to prediction. This reversal was tentatively attributed to unintended "side effects" of the training manipulation. As predicted, expected success was positively related to training, perceived ability, and perceived control. A manipulation of success and failure in the task led to results consistent with predictions: Success produced incerases in satisfaction and perceived ability, while failure led to decreases in perceived ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Menstrual cycle effects on a VDT-based simulation task: cognitive indices and subjective ratings

It is unclear whether the menstrual cycle affects the basics of performance, mainly task performance and cognitive functions. We examined menstrual cycle effects on VDT-based task performance, cognitive indices based on the signal-detection theory, and subjective ratings in questionnaires. We experimented in three phases: premenstrual, menstrual and postmenstrual phases. Previous studies reported premenstrual tension syndrome (PMST) in the premenstrual phase. Women used physiological and psychological strategies to cope during the menstrual phase. However, task performance, cognitive indices and subjective ratings showed no menstrual cycle effects. Thus, we can conclude that the information processing for the VDT-based task was not affected by menstrual cycle.     

Verbal mediation on a nonvisual formboard task with blind, partially sighted, and sighted subjects.

Previous studies indicate that verbal mediation can only enhance formboard performance when Ss can visually associate formboard blocks with verbal mediators. The present study compared the performance of a total of 46 congenitally blind, partially sighted, and sighted adolescents. Results fail to confirm the facilitating effects of verbal mediation on formboard performance. This result was replicated in a 2nd study using 20 sighted undergraduates who were visually acquainted with the blocks before the nonvisual formboard task. It is concluded that since visual impairment played little or no role in formboard performance, the formboard could be useful as an indicator of brain damage in congenitally blind and partially sighted Ss as it is in sighted Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of methylphenidate and expectancy on ADHD children's performance, self-evaluations, persistence, and attributions on a cognitive task.

The effects of 0.3 mg/kg methylphenidate (MPH) and expectancy regarding medication on the performance and task persistence of 60 boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were investigated. In a balanced-placebo design, boys in 4 groups (received placebo–drug crossed with told placebo–drug) completed the task in success and failure conditions. Medication improved participants' task persistence following failure. Participants' task performance was not affected by whether they thought they had received medication or placebo. Children made internal attributions for success and made external attributions for failure, regardless of medication or expectancy. These findings confirm previous reports that it is the pharmacological activity of MPH that affects ADHD children's self-evaluations and persistence. The results contradict anecdotal reports that MPH causes dysfunctional attributions and confirm previous studies showing that medication does not produce adverse effects on the causal attributions of children with ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Postperformance attributions and task persistence among Type A and B individuals: A clarification.

Tested the hypothesis that Type A (coronary-prone) Ss would be more self-serving than Type B (noncoronary-prone) Ss in their attributions for success and failure. It was also hypothesized that task persistence would differ among Type A's and B's and would be dependent on task difficulty and perceived task diagnosticity. 78 undergraduates classified on the basis of scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey as Type A's and B's attempted multiple sets of anagrams that were either easy or difficult. Persistence was measured by the number of anagram sets attempted, and, after task performance, attributions for success and failure were assessed. Results support both hypotheses. Type A's took more credit for success than for failure, whereas Type B's did not provide reliably different attributions for success and failure. Furthermore, Type A's persisted longer at the task when it was difficult and when it was viewed as relatively low in information value. Type B's persisted longer at the task when it was difficult but viewed as relatively high in information value. Results are discussed in the context of current debates regarding the responses of Type A's and B's to performance settings. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-efficacy and mathematics achievement: A study of their relation.

In this study, I investigated the relation between self-efficacy and mathematics achievement when other factors, such as self-concept of math ability, prior task achievement, and prior self-efficacy were taken into account. I assessed self-efficacy over 4 trials in a repeated-measures design with 72 children, aged 9–10 years. I assessed task performance after the first and third self-efficacy assessment. Regression analysis indicated small or no predictive relation between self-efficacy and task performance, depending on task familiarity, when these other factors were included in the analysis. Results of the study lend one to doubt that there is a simple relation between self-efficacy and task performance in the field of mathematics learning. The complexity of self-efficacy, its sources, and consequences are also illustrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)