The effectiveness of adaptive difficulty adjustments on students' motivation and learning in an educational computer game

Computer games that adaptively adjust difficulty are used to continuously challenge players according to their abilities. The adjustment of difficulty occurs automatically in response to a game's ongoing assessment of a player's performance. This approach to difficulty adjustment is likely to be of value in educational computer games as a means of scaffolding learning for students. However, there is limited research evaluating the effectiveness of educational computer games with adaptive difficulty adjustment when compared to non-adaptive difficulty adjustment. To expand on this research a quasi-experimental study was designed to isolate the impact of the difficulty adjustment game element on motivation and learning. A total of 234 secondary school students were allocated to one of three activities involving learning about Spanish cognates: an adaptive difficulty adjustment game, an incremental difficulty adjustment game that was non-adaptive, and a written activity. The three learning activities were designed following the same learning and motivation theories. The two games were identical apart from the difficulty adjustment mechanism. The results for motivation indicated that all students experienced high levels and there was no significant difference between the three learning activities. The pre- and post-tests results for learning indicated that significantly higher learning outcomes were achieved by students who played the adaptive game. Analysis of a game log recording the correctness of students' responses indicated that the adaptive difficulty adjustment game, in contrast to the non-adaptive incremental difficulty adjustment game, provided a scaffolding structure to enhance student learning.     

Interactive story authoring: A viable form of creative expression for the classroom

The unprecedented growth in numbers of children playing computer games has stimulated discussion and research regarding what, if any, educational value these games have for teaching and learning. The research on this topic has primarily focused on children as players of computer games rather than builders/constructors of computer games. Recently, several game companies, such as BioWare Corp. and Bethesda Softworks, have released game story creation tools to the public, along with their games. However, a major obstacle to using these commercial tools is the level of programming experience required to create interactive game stories. In this paper, we demonstrate that a commercial game story construction tool, BioWare Corp.’s Aurora Toolset, can be augmented by our new tool, ScriptEase, to enable students in two grade ten English classes to successfully construct interactive game stories. We present evidence that describes the relationship between interactive story authoring and traditional story authoring, along with a series of factors that can potentially affect success at these activities: gender, creativity, intellectual ability, previous experiences with programming, time playing computer games, and time spent online. Results indicate that students can successfully construct sophisticated interactive stories with very little training. The results also show no gender differences in the quality of these interactive stories, regardless of programming experience or the amount of time per week playing computer games or participating in general online activities, although a subset of female students did show a slightly higher level of performance on interactive story authoring. In the educational context of this study, we show that ScriptEase provides an easy-to-use tool for interactive story authoring in a constructionist learning environment.     

A case study of computer gaming for math: Engaged learning from gameplay?

Employing mixed-method approach, this case study examined the in situ use of educational computer games in a summer math program to facilitate 4th and 5th graders’ cognitive math achievement, metacognitive awareness, and positive attitudes toward math learning. The results indicated that students developed more positive attitudes toward math learning through five-week computer math gaming, but there was no significant effect of computer gaming on students’ cognitive test performance or metacognitive awareness development. The in-field observation and students’ think-aloud protocol informed that not every computer math drill game would engage children in committed learning. The study findings have highlighted the value of situating learning activities within the game story, making games pleasantly challenging, scaffolding reflections, and designing suitable off-computer activities.     

Mobile learning vs. traditional classroom lessons: a comparative study

Different methods can be used for learning, and they can be compared in several aspects, especially those related to learning outcomes. In this paper, we present a study in order to compare the learning effectiveness and satisfaction of children using an iPhone game for learning the water cycle vs. the traditional classroom lesson. The iPhone game includes multiple interaction forms and combined augmented reality (AR) mini‐games with non‐AR mini‐games. The traditional classroom lesson had the same learning content as the iPhone game. Thirty‐eight children participated in the study. The analyses showed that the children made significant learning gains about the water cycle, regardless of the method used. Even though the results showed that the iPhone method achieved higher knowledge results than the traditional classroom lesson, no statistically significant differences were found between the iPhone and the classroom lesson. When analysing the motivational outcomes, the results showed that the children found the iPhone game to be more satisfying than the classroom lessons. Since the iPhone game achieved similar learning results and a higher motivational effect than the classroom lesson, this suggests that games of this kind could be used as a tool in primary schools to reinforce students' lessons.     

The effects of computer-based games and collaboration in large groups vs. collaboration in pairs or traditional methods

As new technologies have emerged in the last few years, the learning process has been changing. New and powerful e-learning systems are being developed and new teaching methods can be used in classrooms. In this paper, we present a computer-based game with an educational background that is played on a large-size tabletop display. The game can be used as reinforcement for educational content related to historical ages. The game uses natural interaction. A study to compare the traditional learning method with a collaborative learning method using the game was carried out. A group of up to 12 children could learn together using the game. The experience of children in large groups was also compared with the experience of children playing in pairs. One hundred children between 8 and 11 years old participated in the study; they were divided into three groups (LGroup, Pairs, TClass). When the pre-test and the post-test results were compared, it was shown that the children learned the contents in all three groups. The results also showed that there were statistically significant differences between the traditional method and the game played in a large group in favour of children who played the game in the large group. The knowledge acquired was independent from gender and age. There were no statistically significant differences between learning in large groups or learning in pairs. In both cases, the children expressed their satisfaction for the game and found it easy to use. Therefore, playing games of this type collaboratively in large groups or in pairs can be a valuable learning method that can be combined with traditional methods.     

A concept map-embedded educational computer game for improving students' learning performance in natural science courses

Many recent studies have reported the benefits of educational computer games in promoting students' learning motivations. On the other hand, however, the effect of digital game-based learning in improving students' learning performance has been questioned. Several previous studies have reported that without properly integrating learning strategies into gaming scenarios, the effectiveness of educational computer games could be limited, or may be even worse than that of the conventional technology-enhanced learning approach. In this study, a concept map-embedded gaming approach is proposed for developing educational computer games by integrating concept mapping as part of the gaming scenarios to help students organize what they have learned during the game-based learning process. Moreover, a role-playing game has been developed for an elementary school natural science course based on the proposed approach. From the experimental results, it is found that the concept map-embedded gaming approach can significantly improve the students' learning achievement and decrease their cognitive load. Moreover, the students who learned with the proposed approach revealed a significantly higher degree of perceived usefulness than those who learned with the conventional game-based learning approach.     

Evaluation of learning outcomes using an educational iPhone game vs. traditional game

In this paper, we present an initial study to determine the subject preferences for educational computer games for children, in which 150 education professionals participated. From the results of this first study, we have developed an iPhone game for transmitting knowledge as part of multiculturalism, solidarity and tolerance following established learning theories, several design principles, and the objectives and competences of the Spanish law for primary education. We also report on a second study to determine whether the iPhone game has better learning outcomes than a traditional game by analyzing the participation of 84 children ranging in age from 8 to 10 years old. The frequency of playing with consoles or computer games was also taken into account in this second study, and the worldwide trend of previous studies has been corroborated. For learning outcomes, the results did not show significant differences between the two groups. However, 96% of the children indicated that they would like to play with the iPhone game again, and 90% indicated that they preferred the experience with the iPhone game over the traditional one. From these results, we can conclude that the children achieved similar knowledge improvements using both the autonomous game (iPhone game) and the custom, guided game (traditional game). This could facilitate versatility in the learning process since the learning activity could be performed at any place and time without requiring supervision. Therefore, it could be a useful tool in the learning process and help teachers to fulfill students' training needs.     

Multiplayer online games as educational tools: Facing new challenges in learning

This paper outlines a proposal for the development of educational multiplayer online games based on the activity theory, as an alternative to the current trend in multiplayer gaming and a means of promoting collaboration among students. In order to examine whether online games are engaging for learners, we consider multiple factors regarding game play – such as frequency of game use, gender differences, identification with the characters, and game preferences – as well as some psychosocial factors that may influence learning – such as academic performance, self-esteem, and computer self-efficacy. This paper suggests that online multiplayer educational games should be approached as a complex learning system, based on the principles of activity theory, where the Subjects would interact with other Subjects, Objects and Tools of the game, under specified Rules and create Communities through division of labor, leading to the expected learning outcome. Thus, we suggest taking into account some important issues concerning the Subjects that the activity theory refers to, such as gender differences in playing games, academic performance, self-esteem and computer self-efficacy.     

Game-based Learning and 21st century skills: A review of recent research

Game-based learning and 21st century skills have been gaining an enormous amount of attention from researchers and practitioners. Given numerous studies support the positive effects of games on learning, a growing number of researchers are committed to developing educational games to promote students’ 21st century skill development in schools. However, little is known regarding how games may influence student acquisition of 21st century skills. This paper examines the most recent literature in regard to game-based learning and identified 29 studies which targeted 21st century skills as outcomes. The range of game genres and game design elements as well as learning theories used in these studies are discussed, together with the range of indicators, measures and outcomes for impacts on 21st century skills. The findings suggest that a game-based learning approach might be effective in facilitating students’ 21st century skill development. The paper also provides valuable insights for researchers, game designers, and educators in issues related to educational game design and implementation in general.     

Flexible learning itinerary vs. linear learning itinerary

The latest video game and entertainment technology and other technologies are facilitating the development of new and powerful e-Learning systems. In this paper, we present a computer-based game for learning about five historical ages. The objective of the game is to reinforce the events that mark the transition from one historical age to another and the order of the historical ages. Our game incorporates natural human–computer interaction based on video game technology, Frontal Projection, and personalized learning. For personalized learning, a Flexible Learning Itinerary has been included, where the children can decide how to direct the flow of their own learning process. For comparison, a Linear Learning Itinerary has also been included, where the children follow a determined learning flow. A study to compare the two different learning itineraries was carried out. Twenty nine children from 8 to 9 years old participated in the study. The analysis of the pre-tests and the post-tests determined that children learned the contents of a game about historical ages. The results show that there were no statistically significant differences between the two learning itineraries. Therefore, our study reveals the potential of computer-based learning games as a tool in the learning process for both flexible and linear itineraries.     

The effects of computer games on primary school students’ achievement and motivation in geography learning

The implementation of a computer game for learning about geography by primary school students is the focus of this article. Researchers designed and developed a three-dimensional educational computer game. Twenty four students in fourth and fifth grades in a private school in Ankara, Turkey learnt about world continents and countries through this game for three weeks. The effects of the game environment on students’ achievement and motivation and related implementation issues were examined through both quantitative and qualitative methods. An analysis of pre and post achievement tests showed that students made significant learning gains by participating in the game-based learning environment. When comparing their motivations while learning in the game-based learning environment and in their traditional school environment, it was found that students demonstrated statistically significant higher intrinsic motivations and statistically significant lower extrinsic motivations learning in the game-based environment. In addition, they had decreased focus on getting grades and they were more independent while participating in the game-based activities. These positive effects on learning and motivation, and the positive attitudes of students and teachers suggest that computer games can be used as an ICT tool in formal learning environments to support students in effective geography learning.     

Using activity theory to understand intergenerational play: The case of Family Quest

We implemented a five-week family program called Family Quest where parents and children ages 9 to 13 played Quest Atlantis, a multiuser 3D educational computer game, at a local after-school club for 90-minute sessions. We used activity theory as a conceptual and an analytical framework to study the nature of intergenerational play, the collaborative activity between parents and children in the context of role-playing virtual game environment, and the opportunities and challenges of bringing parents and children together around an educational video game. Our analyses of five parent-child dyads revealed that the nature of intergenerational play is different for different parent-child dyads, but has positive outcomes. Implications of the study for supporting family learning and bonding through video games are discussed.     

Computer games in pre-school settings: Didactical challenges when commercial educational computer games are implemented in kindergartens

This article focuses on the didactical implications when commercial educational computer games are used in Norwegian kindergartens by analysing the dramaturgy and the didactics of one particular game and the game in use in a pedagogical context. Our justification for analysing the game by using dramaturgic theory is that we consider the game to be a multimodal performance utilising text, graphics, pictures, sound and animation. Similarly we analyse the didactic situation by using dramaturgic theories and concepts because we consider the didactic meeting between the medium (the game), children (the player(s), and teacher to be a dramaturgic situation comprising different roles, actions in progress, time and space. Our data material shows that the pre-school teacher is more or less absent during the children's playing with the computer games, but when the pre-school teacher involves him/herself, she finds it difficult to realise her ideal socio-cultural didactical project in which dialogue is a central medium for exploration and learning. Through our analysis of the data material we find that there are two different dramaturgies at stake; the built-in interactive dramaturgy of the game materialised in the gaming situation and the dialogical dramaturgy that the pre-school teacher tries to create in the didactical situation. This implies that there is a didactical dissonance between the learning space which the game and the learning space the pre-school teacher wants to construct and orchestrate.     

Children's enjoyment and perception of computer use in the home and the school

This paper seeks to examine the nature and experiences of children's computer use in the home and school. Past research suggests a growing gap between computer use in the home and the school. This study was conducted to find out how children perceive and enjoy computer use in these two environments. Using a sample of year 3 and 5 pupils in three primary schools, qualitative and quantitative data were gathered. The results suggest that children make more use of the computer at home than at school. The most popular activity on the home computer which all children enjoyed was playing games. The most frequent activity at the school computer was word processing which pupils considered boring. Interesting gender differences showed that boys spent more time playing computer games whereas girls spent more time on the Internet emailing friends. The study concludes that schools should learn from what works at home and enable children to work on activities they find valuable, motivational and worthwhile.     

Integrating cluster and sequential analysis to explore learners’ flow and behavioral patterns in a simulation game with situated-learning context for science courses: A video-based process exploration

Much emphasis has been placed on the research on applying digital games in science education. Among the studies, the advantages and limitations of role-playing simulation games deserve further exploration. However, existing analyses of the behavioral patterns of role-playing simulation games in science education remain substantially lacking, particularly the integration of diverse behavioral pattern analysis methods. This study thus seeks to analyze the videotaped learning process of 86 college students in game-based learning activities that utilize a role-playing simulation game. This study used the integrated method of sequential analysis and cluster analysis and explored the learners’ flow state and learning behavioral patterns. The results show that the use of integrated behavioral pattern analysis helps to explore the traits and limitations of role-playing simulation games in science education as well as learners’ reflective behavior patterns.This study identifies a wide variety of learning behavior patterns from three potential clusters of learners and then discusses the learning process of each cluster. The different levels of flow experienced by the learners affected their learning behavior patterns; learners with higher levels of flow demonstrated a more in-depth reflective process. The study further discusses the results of these analyses and makes relevant recommendations for the systems development of the games, its educational applications, and evaluation methods.     

Assessing the educational values of digital games

Abstract   In recent years, digital games have assumed an important place in the lives of children and adolescents. Effective content design is crucial to the success of digital game-based learning. Therefore, the tool for assessing the effectiveness of game design is accordingly very important for parents and teachers, so that they may encourage or discourage students to play. The purpose of this study is to develop an assessment tool to examine the educational values of digital games. In the first phase of this research, the research team developed the indices for assessing the educational values of digital games. An expert panel consisting of game scholars and professional game designers was established to construct the indices for evaluating digital games in three focus group discussions. Seventy-four game evaluation indices were sorted into seven categories: mentality change, emotional fulfilment, knowledge enhancement, thinking skill development, interpersonal skill development, spatial ability development and bodily coordination. In the second phase of the research, the game designers were asked to assess certain games by using the 74 indices. Meanwhile, the game scholars were also asked to evaluate the same pool of games by the same indices. The assessments by both the scholars and designers were then compared and the similarities were found. This research provided a preliminary framework for future game designers, parents and teachers in assessing educational values of digital games.     

Using animation to support the teaching of computer game development techniques

In this paper, we examine the potential use of animation for supporting the teaching of some of the mathematical concepts that underlie computer games development activities, such as vector and matrix algebra. An experiment was conducted with a group of UK undergraduate computing students to compare the perceived usefulness of animated and static learning materials for teaching such concepts. Undergraduate computer game development courses are currently a growing area of UK higher education. Computer game development can often involve the use of mathematical modelling of two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer game objects and their interactions. Overall, it appeared that animated learning materials appeared to be perceived as being more useful to undergraduate computer games students than traditional learning materials for learning such concepts.     

Comparing the retention and flow experience in playing Solitary and Heart Attack games of San Zi Jing: A perspective of Dual Process Theory

Most educational games require high speed process; they require fast recognitions and accurate hand-eye coordination to play. Under this constraint, Dual Process theory (DPT) indicated players have different levels of cognitive process over different games which affect their mood. Csikszentmihalyi highlighted that a flow experience is the essential psychological effect on mood and cognitive process. According to DPT, how students engage in different game design will affect their learning retention effects. The flow experiences were examined in this study in relation to Solitary and Heart Attack games of San Zi Jing (a Chinese educational poem). The present study was implemented with a sample of 209 5th and 6th grade elementary school students. The students were assigned with one of the games randomly. The results indicated that in terms of flow experiences, Heart Attack group was significantly higher than that of the Solitary group; secondly, solitary game showed a better retention rate than Heart Attack game did after one month; even though the retention rate of both type games have slight loose after one month. The results of this study suggest if the game design emphasizes on learning retention, solitary game is recommended for higher grade students. Whereas, game design for hedonic values, then Heart Attack type is recommended. Future studies may focus on additional contents and establish more trials to examine the effects of flow experiences and engagement effects.     

Computer games created by middle school girls: Can they be used to measure understanding of computer science concepts?

Computer game programming has been touted as a promising strategy for engaging children in the kinds of thinking that will prepare them to be producers, not just users of technology. But little is known about what they learn when programming a game. In this article, we present a strategy for coding student games, and summarize the results of an analysis of 108 games created by middle school girls using Stagecast Creator in an after school class. The findings show that students engaged in moderate levels of complex programming activity, created games with moderate levels of usability, and that the games were characterized by low levels of code organization and documentation. These results provide evidence that game construction involving both design and programming activities can support the learning of computer science concepts.     

An implementation of design-based learning through creating educational computer games: A case study on mathematics learning during design and computing

This mixed-method case study examined the potential of computer-assisted, math game making activities in facilitating design-based math learning for school children. Sixty-four middle school children participated in Scratch-based, math game making activities. Data were collected via activity and conversation observation, artifact analysis, interviewing, and survey. The study findings indicated that participants developed significantly more positive dispositions toward mathematics after computer game making. The study also found that experience-driven game design processes helped to activate children's reflection on everyday mathematical experiences. Mathematical thinking and content experience were intertwined within the process of computer game authoring. On the other hand, children designers were involved in game-world and story crafting more than mathematical representation. And it was still challenging for them to perform computer game coding with abstract reasoning.