Effect of seed maturity on seed oil,fatty acid and crude protein content of eightCuphea species

Thirty-six lots of eightCuphea species grown at nine geographical locations from 1983 to 1985 were analyzed for seed weight, oil percentage, fatty acid and crude protein content. Twenty-two samples were separated into two distinct seed maturity groups and also analyzed. Seed maturity varied widely but had little effect on oil percentage, even though mature seeds were significantly heavier than less mature seeds. Lauric acid content generally increased and capric acid decreased with increasing seed maturity. Crude protein of whole seeds and defatted seed meal increased with increasing seed maturity. The net effect of harvestingCuphea wrightii seeds at full maturity in comparison with that for less mature seeds was to increase seed weight by 12%, decrease capric acid by 3%, increase lauric acid by 2% and increase crude protein of whole seeds and defatted meal by 5% and 4%, respectively. Seed oil content was decreased by a statistically nonsignificant 1%. The effect of seed maturity was comparable for the other four lauric acid- and three capric acid-rich species, even though distinct species differences in all factors were measured. Location and environment contributed to some quantitative and qualitative changes, but these factors are not considered to be major sources of variation. It is concluded that variation in seed maturity does not present a major constraint to commercialization ofCuphea as a new, alternative source of lauric and other medium-chain fatty acids. The ultimate significance of these minor changes will depend upon relative yields, demands and values of the various seed components.     

Controlling Argan Seed Quality by NIR

The suitability of using visible/near infrared spectroscopy (Vis/NIR), as a rapid and non‐destructive technique for monitoring the quality of argan seeds (Argania spinosa Skeels) was studied. The analyzed parameters were the fatty acid composition of argan seed oil, seed moisture content, seed oil content and oil stability index (OSI). The ratio between major unsaturated and saturated fatty acids (U/S) during the oxidation assay at constant temperature was studied. Values from infrared drying were used as a laboratory reference for the moisture. Argan seed oil content was determined by Soxhlet extraction. A fatty acid analysis was carried out by gas chromatography and the OSI was determined by the Rancimat test. Predictive models of argan seed moisture, ratio U/S and OSI showed good accuracy. Therefore, Vis/NIR measurements can be used for controlling several argan seed quality parameters. This procedure might be of interest to the argan oil industry, which is currently in the process of modernization and expansion.     

Oil, Fatty Acid Profile and Karanjin Content in Developing Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Seeds

Oil content, fatty acid composition and karanjin content were studied in developing pongamia seeds, at intervals of 3?weeks from 30?weeks after flowering up to 42?weeks. Three marked stages in seed development were observed at the early green pod stage, the middle half brown stage and the late dark brown stage. Significant variation in seed biomass, pod and seed characteristics were observed. A significant (P?<?0.01) decrease in the moisture content of the seeds was observed during seed development. The oil content gradually increased from 32.06 to 36.53?% as the seed matured. A significant variation in fatty acid composition was detected across all stages of seed development. Palmitic acid (16:0) content marginally decreased from 11.81 to 10.18?%, while stearic acid (18:0) and linolenic acid (18:3) remained constant at all stages of seed maturity. A steady increase in oleic acid (18:1) content from 38.11 to 49.11?% was observed, while the linoleic acid (18:2) content decreased from 30.14 to 18.85?%. The iodine value increased, while the saponification number of oil decreased during seed development. The increase in karanjin content was steady. Seeds harvested after 42?week after flowering yielded the maximum oil with high oleic acid content which could be suitable for biodiesel production.     

In vivo and in vitro lipid accumulation inBorago officinalis L.

Seeds of 13 accessions of borage (Borago officinalis) varied in total fatty acid content from 28.6 to 35.1% seed weight, with linoleic, γ-linolenic, oleic and palmitic as the predominant fatty acids, averaging 38.1%, 22.8%, 16.3% and 11.3% of total fatty acids, respectively. There was an inverse relation between γ-linolenic acid (25.0 to 17.6%) and oleic acid (14.5 to 21.3%). Fatty acid content of leaf tissues was 9.1% dry weight, with α-linolenic acid 55.2% and γ-linolenic acid 4.4% of total fatty acids. Cotyledons were the major source of fatty acids in seeds. Seed fatty acid content increased from <1 mg at six days postanthesis to about seven mg at maturity (22 to 24 days). Individual fatty acid content of seed was relatively constant after day 8. When immature embryos from 6 to 16 days postanthesis were cultured in a liquid or semisolid basal medium, fatty acid composition was similar to that of in vivo-grown seeds. Growth of cultured embryos decreased as sucrose concentration was increased from 3 to 20% in the basal medium, and most embryos did not survive 30% sucrose; fatty acid as a percentage of dry weight was maximal at 6% sucrose.     

Full-Press Oil Extraction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cuphea</Emphasis> (PSR23) Seeds

Cuphea PSR23, a semi-domesticated, high-capric-acid hybrid from Cuphea viscosissima × Cuphea lanceolata, is being developed as a potential commercial alternative source of medium-chain fatty acids. The present study evaluated the effects of initial seed moisture and final moisture contents of cooked flaked seed on Cuphea’s pressing characteristics and the quality of the extracted oil. Seeds with 9 and 12% initial moisture contents (MC) were flaked and cooked at different residence times to produce cooked seeds with MC of 3.0–5.5%. Cooked seeds were pressed using a laboratory screw press. Eighty and 84% oil were extracted from cooked seeds with 5.5 and 3.0% MC, respectively. The seeds with 9% initial MC exhibited lower pressing load increase (9.1 per 1% decrease in MC) than the seeds with 12% initial MC (16.4 per 1% decrease in MC). The pressing rate decreased by 3% as the cooked flaked seed MC decreased. The amount of foots in the oil increased from 3 to 6.6% and chlorophyll content increased from 200 to 260 ppm as cooked flaked seed MC decreased from 5.5 to 3.0%. FFA contents were 2.5% for all treatments MC studied. The phosphatide content increased as the cooked flaked seed MC decreased but the amounts were still within the levels of water-degummed oil. This paper may contain brand names that are necessary to report factually on available data; however, the USDA neither guarantees nor warrants the standard of the product, and the use of the name by USDA implies no approval of the product to the exclusion of others that may also be suitable.     

Expression of Genes Controlling Unsaturated Fatty Acids Biosynthesis and Oil Deposition in Developing Seeds of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.)

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L., Euphorbiaceae) seed oil is rich in α-linolenic acid, a kind of n-3 fatty acids with many health benefits. To discover the mechanism underlying α-linolenic acid accumulation in sacha inchi seeds, preliminary research on sacha inchi seed development was carried out from one week after fertilization until maturity, focusing on phenology, oil content, and lipid profiles. The results suggested that the development of sacha inchi seeds from pollination to mature seed could be divided into three periods. In addition, investigations on the effect of temperature on sacha inchi seeds showed that total oil content decreased in the cool season, while unsaturated fatty acid and linolenic acid concentrations increased. In parallel, expression profiles of 17 unsaturated fatty acid related genes were characterized during seed development and the relationships between gene expression and lipid/unsaturated fatty acid accumulation were discussed.     

Fatty acid composition of seeds from the AustralianAcacia species

Presented are the lipid content and fatty acid composition of 20 species of edible AustralianAcacia seeds. Aborigines reportedly have used at least 18 of these as foods. Seed lipid content ranged from 3% to 22%, with an average of 11% on a dry weight basis. Linoleic (12–71%), oleic (12–56%) and plamitic (7–35%) acids were the major fatty acids. Smaller proportions of behenic, stearic and vaccenic acids were detected. Seventeen of the 20 species were found to have polyunsaturated to saturated (P/S) fatty acid ratios greater than 1, with four species having ratios in excess of 4. The persistent arils attached to the seeds of certain AustralianAcacias and containing a portion of the total lipid were associated with a significantly reduced proportion of linoleic acid in the total seed material. This observation was explained by the aril lipid possessing a markedly different fatty acid composition from that of the seed lipid. For comparison, seeds from two non-AustralianAcacia species (A. farnesiana andA. cavenia) were analyzed. Australian and non-Australian were found to exhibit markedly different fatty acid profiles. Some of this work published as short report inProc. Nutr. Soc. Aust. 10, 209–212 (1985).     

Development of Whole and Ground Seed Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Calibrations for Oil,Protein, Moisture,and Fatty Acids in Salvia hispanica

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is an ancient crop that has experienced an agricultural resurgence in recent decades owing to the high omega 3 fatty acid (ω-3) content of the seeds and good production potential. Analysis of 563 lots of chia grown in Kentucky and 10 lots from Arizona, Australia, Mexico, and Peru was performed. All of these lots were assessed for fatty acid, oil, and protein content, while a subset of 120 samples were assessed for amino acids, fiber, minerals, and trace elements. The mean oil content was 31.3%, ranging from 21.4% to 35.3%. The protein content averaged 22.8%, ranging from 18.2% to 28.2%, and the ω-3 FA α-linolenic acid (ALA) averaged 61.3%, ranging from 33.9% to 69.9%. Using these seed lots, nondestructive near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calibrations were developed for whole and ground seed oil, protein, moisture, and the six major fatty acids. The R² and SE of cross-validation (SECV) values for oil were 0.78 and 0.95, respectively, while those for protein were 0.75 and 1.05, respectively. The NIRS calibrations for fatty acid had R² and SECV greater than 0.6 and less than 10% of actual values for all major fatty acids, respectively. An R² of 0.99 was established for moisture content of whole seeds within the range of 3–10% moisture content. The precision and accuracy of these calibrations is adequate for use by breeders, growers, and food quality experts to quantitatively assess these major constituents without the need for costly and time-consuming chemical analysis.     

Relation of days after flowering to chemical composition and physiological maturity of sunflower seed

Hybrid sunflower seed (achene) were collected from plants at 7-day intervals after the initiation of flowering which occurred 58 days after planting. The seed were analyzed for moisture, total oil, free fatty acids, lipid classes, and fatty acid composition. Seed dry weight, oil and triglyceride contents were maximum 35 days after the initiation of flowering (DAF) when the seed moisture content was about 36%. This point was defined as “physiological maturity” for sunflowers. The fatty acid composition of the oil extracted from the seed was determined at each stage of maturity. Total saturated fatty acids were 27% at 7 DAF and then decreased to a constant 9% by 35 DAF. At 7 DAF, linolenic acid content was 10.7% then decreased to less than 0.1% by 28 DAF. Oleic acid was about 12% at 7 DAF, increased to 59.6% at 14 DAF, and then gradually decreased to 31.4% by 56 DAF. On the other hand, linoleic acid was about 48% at 7 DAF, decreased to 23% by 14 DAF, but then gradually increased to 59.2% by 56 DAF. An analysis of variance of linoleic and oleic acid contents from 21 DAF to 70 DAF showed a highly significant change in composition with maturation time. The changes in the composition of these fatty acids from 21 DAF to 70 DAF appeared to be related to the environmental temperature which gradually decreased until 56 DAF. Increase in free fatty acids after physiological maturity indicated that deterioration of seed oil was beginning to occur.     

Composition of jojoba seed during development

Data were taken on developing jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis [Link] Schneider) seed to determine what differences should be expected in quantity and quality of wax and meal when seed is harvested before complete maturation. Analyses were carried out for seed wt; moisture, protein, and wax contents; fatty acid and alcohol composition of the wax; and amino acid composition of the meal of seed samples collected from a natural population in Aguanga, Calif., at weekly intervals from June 20 to maturity on August 15. Wax content of the seed increased rapidly during the first 4 weeks from 13.5–40.5% and slower later, from 43.6–49.4%. Protein content of the meal increased at a slow steady rate during the entire period from 22.3–32.6%. Seed harvested 20 days prior to full maturity had essentially the same wax and protein contents as mature seed; it had lower seed wt and excessively high moisture though. The amino acid content of the meal increased considerably between the first and last sampling from 13.40–26.18% by wt. Certain amino acids increased at a faster rate than others. Whereas major changes occurred in the fatty acid composition of the wax, the alcohol composition remained unchanged throughout the sampling period.     

Influence of moisture content and cooking on screw pressing of crambe seed

The cooking and drying conditions for oilseeds preparatory to screw pressing are some of the most important factors that influence screw-press performance. Screw-press oil recovery, residual oil, pressing rate, and oil sediment content were measured for uncooked crambe seed and crambe seed cooked at 100°C for 10 min, pressed at six moisture contents ranging from 9.2 to 3.6% dry basis. Oil recovery significantly increased (P≤0.01) from 69 to 80.9% and 67.7 to 78.9% for cooked and uncooked seeds, respectively, as moisture content decreased. Residual oil significantly decreased (P≤0.01) from 16.3 to 11.1% and 16.9 to 11.9%, respectively, as moisture content decreased. The reduced oil loss due to only drying the seed from 9.2 to 3.6% was 32% for cooked seed, whereas cooking contributed only 3.6 to 7% reduced oil loss. Pressing rate decreased from 5.81 to 5.17 kg/h and 6.09 to 5.19 kg/h for cooked and uncooked seeds, respectively, whereas sediment content increased from 0.9 to 7.8% and 1.1 to 5.4%, respectively, as moisture content decreased. The effects of moisture content on pressing rate and sediment content were significant at P≤0.05. All relationships of screw-press performance to moisture content were fitted to a second-order polynomial.     

Associations between Oil Yield and Profile of Fatty Acids,Sterols, Squalene,Carotenoids, and Tocopherols in Seed Oil of Selected Japanese Quince Genotypes during Fruit Development

Tocopherols, phytosterols, carotenoids, and squalene are present in mature seeds of Japanese quince. Yet, little is known about the relationship between these compounds and oil yield during fruit and seed development. The profile change of lipophilic compounds during fruit and seed development in Japanese quince cultivars “Darius,” “Rondo,” and “Rasa” is investigated. It is shown here that during fruit and seed development, there is a significant reduction, three‐ to over tenfold, in the concentration of minor bioactive compounds in seed oil. It is recorded that delay between synthesis of tocopherols and oil in Japanese quince seeds during the fruit development results in a logarithmic relationship between the oil content and tocopherols concentration in the seed oil (R² = 0.980). Similar trends are observed between oil yield and phytosterols, and carotenoids (R² = 0.927 and R² = 0.959, respectively). The profile of fatty acids during the development of the seeds significantly is changed. The reduction of linoleic, palmitic, and gondoic acids levels and increment of oleic acid is noted. The oil content, profile of fatty acids, and concentration of bioactive compounds in all three genotypes of Japanese quince do not change significantly statistically during the last month of fruit development. Practical Applications: Some fruits are harvested at different degrees of maturity mainly due to a logistic issue and uneven ripening of fruits, which affects the chemical composition of whole fruit including seeds. Therefore, it would be good to know how the chemical composition is changing in plant material during development especially in the last month before harvest. Production of Japanese quince continues to rise year to year and with it the volume of generated by‐products such as seeds. This study demonstrates how it changes the oil content, profile of fatty acid, and concentration of tocopherols, squalene, phytosterols, and carotenoids in the seeds and seed oil of three Japanese quince cultivars “Rondo,” “Darius,” and “Rasa” during plant development. The provided information can be very useful for the manufactories oriented on the processing of by‐products, mainly seeds, generated by other branches of industry, for instance, fruit‐processing.     

Effects of Drought Stress on Oil Characteristics of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carthamus</Emphasis> Species

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is one of the oldest domesticated crops, mainly grown as oilseed in the arid and semi arid regions of the world. Cross‐ability of Carthamus species has made wild safflower species a suitable source for transferring drought tolerant genes to cultivated species. This study was conducted to investigate seed yield per plant, oil content and fatty acid composition of some Carthamus species and to identify the effects of drought stress on these measured traits. In this regard, 27 genotypes from C. tinctorius, C. palaestinus, C. oxyacanthus, C. lanatus and C. glaucus were planted in the field under normal and drought‐stress conditions for two years. Results showed that some studied species differed in oil content, seed yield per plant and fatty acid profiles. As an example, the highest seed oil content (32%) was found in genotype number 22 from C. palaestinus, and the lowest (18%) was obtained for the genotype number 11 from C. lanatus. For all the species, oil content was not affected by moisture stress and did not change over different environments. Similar and stable responses of various Carthamus species for fatty acid composition indicated that hybridization between these species for genetic improvement of drought tolerance may have no adverse effects on oil quality. Considerable diversity within species for all measured traits, similarity in fatty acid profiles and almost the same pattern of changes under drought stress showed that the wild species especially the crossable ones, are good candidates to be used in breeding of cultivated safflower.     

Composition of Catalpa ovata Seed Oil and Flavonoids in Seed Meal as Well as Their Antioxidant Activities

In view of the growing demand for vegetable oil, currently exploration of some non‐conventional oils is of great concern. This study firstly analyzed the contents of fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols in Catalpa ovata seed oil collected from four different Provinces in China. Then the composition of flavonoids as well as their antioxidant activities in defatted seed meal was determined. The results showed that the relative oil content in C. ovata seeds ranged from 24.0 to 36.0 % and seed oil was mainly composed of fatty acids linoleic acid (43.4–50.1 %), α‐linolenic acid (23.8–24.4 %), and oleic acid (13.1–16.2 %). The content of unsaturated fatty acids was up to 85.0 %. Sterol in seed oil mainly contained campesterol, stigmasterol, and β‐sitosterol. β‐sitosterol accounted for 74.0 % of the total sterol. The tocopherol content was 173.0–225.7 mg/100 g. Defatted seed meal from Hubei Province showed the highest content of total flavonoids (11 mg/g) and the strongest activities for DPPH radicals scavenging, ABTS radicals scavenging, and ferric reducing antioxidant power compared with other defatted seed meal in this study. Seven flavonoids were identified from C. ovata seed meal. These results suggest that C. ovata seeds may be developed as a new source of oil and can also be properly used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.     

Physicochemical Properties and Fatty Acid Profile of Phoenix Tree Seed and its Oil

Various components of Phoenix tree (Firmiana simplex) seed were determined. Oil, protein, moisture, ash, and fiber accounted for 27.8 ± 0.3, 19.7 ± 0.4, 7.5 ± 0.2, 4.4 ± 0.3, and 31.23 ± 0.93 % (w/w) of the seed, respectively. The acid value, peroxide value, saponification value, and unsaponifiable matter content of Phoenix tree seed oil extracted using the Soxhlet method were 3.73 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g, 1.97 ± 0.21 mmol/kg, 183.74 ± 2.37 mg KOH/g, and 0.90 ± 0.05 g/100 g, respectively. The total tocopherol content was 54.5 ± 0.5 mg/100 g oil, which consisted mainly of δ‐tocopherol (29.5 ± 0.6 mg/100 g oil) and γ‐tocopherol (13.8 ± 0.8 mg/100 g oil). Linoleic acid (L, 30.2 %), oleic acid (O, 22.2 %), and sterculic acid (S, 23.2 %) were the main unsaturated fatty acids of Phoenix tree seed oil. The saturated fatty acids included palmitic acid (17.4 %) and stearic acid (St, 2.9 %). The work shows the first report of sterculic acid in seeds of this species. This oil can be used as a raw material to produce sterculic acid.     

Changes in lipid class and fatty acid compositions during maturation ofHibiscus esculentus andHibiscus cannabinus seeds

The major lipid classes and their constituent fatty acids were analyzed in maturing seeds ofHibiscus esculentus andH. cannabinus. The seeds matured in 40 and 45 days, respectively. The active accumulation period was from the 13th to 25th and 15th to 30th day after flowering, respectively. While a continuous increase in the content of triacylglycerols (TAG) was noticed inH. esculentus, TAG was at its peak inH. cannabinus on the 20th day after flowering. The contents of polar lipids were high in the immature seeds but decreased during maturation. The major fatty acids in both species were palmitic, oleic and linoleic. Cyclopropane fatty acids were present only in TAG of both species throughout maturation period. Cyclopropene and epoxy acids appeared in TAG in traces at the final stages of seed maturation. Oleic and linoleic acids were preferentially esterified at the secondary positions of TAG. The contents of palmitic and stearic acids at the secondary positions were sharply reduced as TAG accumulated.     

Fatty acid profiles from forty-nine plant species that are potential new sources of γ-linolenic acid

Forty-nine plant species from Spain, belonging to the Boraginaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Onagraceae, and Ranunculaceae families, were surveyed in a search of new sources of γ-linolenic acid (18∶3ω6, GLA). Fatty acid profiles from seeds, stems, roots, flowers and leaves were determined. GLA was detected mainly in seed and root tissues. High GLA amounts were found in seeds of Boraginaceae species, with a maximum of 20.25% of total fatty acids in Myosotis nemorosa. Within the Scrophulariaceae the highest GLA content (10.17%) was found in Scrophularia sciophila. Variable amounts of stearidonic acid, (18∶4ω3, SDA) were present in Boraginaceae species, ranging from 0.08% of total seed fatty acids in Anchusa azurea to 21.06% in Echium asperrimum. SDA was also very abundant in all organs of Asperugo procumbens. A multivariate analysis was performed using our results and those reported for other plant species belonging to the same families in order to investigate a possible correlation between the fatty acid profile and the genera within these families.     

Microwave inactivation of thioglucosidase in intact crambe seeds

Optimum conditions for microwave inactivation of thioglucosidase in whole crambe seeds(Crambe abyssinica Hochst.) were investigated. Whole crambe seeds were left at 7% moisture or tempered to between 10 and 20% moisture contents prior to exposure to various microwave power inputs for 38 sec under controlled conditions. Ten percent moisture crambe seeds coupled the maximum percentage of microwave power. The amount of microwave energy required to inactivate thioglucosidase decreased as the moisture content of the seeds increased from 10 to 20%. Thioglucosidase could not be inactivated in 7% moisture seeds without burning the seeds. With 10, 15, and 20% moisture levels crambe seeds required a minimum of 0.70, 0.60, and 0.65 kW, respectively, of initial microwave power input and 18,12, and 11 kJ, respectively, of coupled energy to inactivate thioglucosidase. Optimum crambe seed moisture contents for microwave inactivation of thioglucosidase were determined to be between 14-16%.     

Determination of seed oil content and fatty acid composition in sunflower through the analysis of intact seeds, husked seeds, meal and oil by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy

A methodological study was conducted to test the potential of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to estimate the oil content and fatty acid composition of sunflower seeds. A set of 387 intact-seed samples, each from a single plant, were scanned by NIRS, and 120 of them were selected and further scanned as husked seed, meal, and oil. All samples were analyzed for oil content (nuclear magnetic resonance) and fatty acid composition (gas chromatography), and calibration equations for oil content and individual fatty acids (C_16:0, C_16:1, C_18:0, C_18:1, and C_18:2) were developed for intact seed, husked seed, meal, and oil. For intact seed, the performance of the calibration equations was evaluated through both cross- and external validation, while cross-validation was used in the rest. The results showed that NIRS is a reliable and accurate technique to estimate these traits in sunflower oil (validation r ² ranged from 0.97 to 0.99), meal (r ² from 0.92 to 0.98), and husked seeds (r ² from 0.90 to 0.97). According to these results, there is no need to grind the seeds to scan the meal; similarly accurate results are obtained by analyzing husked seeds. The analysis of intact seeds was less accurate (r ² from 0.76 to 0.85), although it is reliable enough to use for pre-screening purposes to identify variants with significantly different fatty acid compositions from standard phenotypes. Screening of intact sunflower seeds by NIRS represents a rapid, simple, and cost-effective alternative that may be of great utility for users who need to analyze a large number of samples.     

The composition of seed and seed oils of taramira(Eruca sativa)

The seeds ofEruca sativa, commonly known as taramira, were found to contain 4.1% moisture, 27.8% oil, 27.4% protein and 6.6% ash. Atomic absorption spectrophotometric analysis indicated calcium and potassium levels of 1186 and 1116 mg/100 g of whole seed, respectively. Other mineral contents also are reported. The seed oil had a specific gravity of 0.910, refractive index of 1.4680 (at 40 C), iodine value of 137.0, saponification value of 168.1 and a free fatty acid content of 2.3% (as oleic acid). Gas chromatographic analysis of the oil revealed high levels of linolenic acid (36.2%) and relatively low levels of erucic acid (10.3%).