The influence of electrodes and conditioning on space chargeaccumulation in XLPE

The accumulation of space charge in planar crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) samples under dc electric fields at room temperature was investigated using the pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method. Three different organic semiconductor (semicon) materials containing carbon black at concentrations ~30 %wt, and vacuum-evaporated gold, were used as electrodes. Three different conditioning procedures were investigated. Unconditioned samples developed heterocharge with density increasing from zero at the electrodes, to a maximum at roughly one-third of the thickness, and then falling to zero around the center. They also developed homocharge close to the electrodes. The choice of electrode material had little effect on the heterocharge profile in unconditioned samples. Conditioning by holding at 80°C for four days, at rotary pump pressure or at atmospheric pressure, suppressed the accumulation of heterocharge. Homocharge accumulation close to the electrodes in samples with semicon electrodes was affected little by this conditioning, but was reduced considerably in samples with gold electrodes. Conditioning by holding at room temperature for seven days at rotary pump pressure had little effect. The heterocharge originates in inhomogeneous polarization due to a spatially inhomogeneous distribution of permanent dipole molecules, probably acetophenone. The dipole concentration decreases in going from the electrodes towards the center of the samples, as a result of diffusion of the molecules in the opposite direction. The homocharge originates in electronic charge injection/extraction across the electrode/XLPE interfaces     

Factors of hetero space charge generation in XLPE under dc electric field of 20 kV/mm

This report deals with the mechanism of space charge accumulation in cross‐linked polyethylene (XLPE) under dc electric field. Space charge was measured by the pulsed‐electroacoustic method with applying dc stress of 20 kV/mm. A large amount of hetero space charge accumulated in fresh XLPE samples. Factors influencing the space charge accumulation were analyzed in regard to cross‐linking by‐products and antioxidant. No space charge was seen when the fresh sample was degassed to remove cross‐linking by‐products. Introducing acetophenone, one of the cross‐linking by‐products, in a degassed sample produces no space charge, suggesting that acetophenone itself could not be the direct factor of space charge formation. However, heating this sample up to 150 °C results in formation of hetero space charges as in virgin samples. Hence, it is concluded that hetero space charges may be formed when impurities, such as an antioxidant, dissociate thermally with the help of acetophenone and that the dissociated products are attracted toward both electrodes under a dc field to form the hetero space charges. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 129(2): 13–21, 1999     

Interfacial properties of XLPE/EPDM laminates

Interfacial properties such as space charge accumulation and breakdown characteristics in crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE)/ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) laminates were investigated. Homocharge is observed in EPDM containing 1,4-hexadiene while heterocharge is observed in EPDM containing 5-ethylene-2-norbornene. Interfacial charge develops when the EPDM is laminated with XLPE. The polarity of this interfacial charge reverses at less than a few tens of hours heat treatment at 80°C dc breakdown voltage shows a sequential change of an increase, a decrease and a slight increase as a function of heat treatment time, which holds true for both interfacial and volume breakdown voltages. A maximum breakdown voltage is observed at 20 to 24 h heat treatment. After long heat treatment, silicone grease used in the interface shows lower interfacial breakdown voltage than silicone oil for the dc case, which was attributed to the additives in the grease and the molecular weight of silicone molecules in oil and grease. Details of the results are given and their origins discussed     

Practical Application of ±250‐kV DC‐XLPE Cable for Hokkaido–Honshu HVDC Link

The long‐term dc properties of DC‐XLPE insulation materials, which have been developed for dc use, were investigated. It was found that the lifetime of DC‐XLPE under dc voltage application is extended by the addition of nano‐sized filler. The time dependence of the space charge distribution at 50 kV/mm was observed for 7 days. Almost no accumulation of space charge in DC‐XLPE was found. The 250‐kV DC‐XLPE cables and accessories were manufactured and subjected to a type test and PQ test for use in the Hokkaido–Honshu dc link facility owned by the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. These tests were performed under conditions that included a polarity reversal test for line commutated converter (LCC) systems as recommended in CIGRE TB 219. The test temperature was 90 °C. The type test and PQ test were successfully completed. The DC‐XLPE cable and accessories were installed in summer 2012 for the Hokkaido–Honshu dc link. After the installation of the dc extruded cable system, a dc high‐voltage test at 362.5 kV (=1.45 PU) for 15 min was successfully completed in accordance with CIGRE TB 219. This dc extruded cable system was put into operation in December 2012 as the world's highest‐voltage extruded dc cable in service and the world's first dc extruded cable for a LCC system including polarity reversal operation.     

Some factors for the space charge formation in polyethylene

Information on space-charge behavior in thick insulated samples aids in understanding the dc characteristics of polymer-insulated dc cables. The pulsed electroacoustic method is used to investigate several space charge formation factors in 2 mm-thick polyethylene (PE). The following results were obtained. For measurement factors: (1) A polymeric semiconducting electrode provides a more accurate measurement than does a metal electrode as a result of better matching of acoustic impedance with PE. (2) Within a dc electrical stress range of several tens kV/mm, the space charge distributions under and after dc voltage application are almost the same; this is due to a comparatively long time of space-charge decay. (3) The space-charge distribution of a plate sample agrees with that of a cable sample having the same insulation thickness. For insulating material factors: (1) The amount of space charge in crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) is much larger than that in low-density PE (base of XLPE). The space charge of XLPE continues to increase even after dc voltage application (24 h); that of LDPE reaches equilibrium with a few hours. (2) The aforementioned space charge difference between XLPE and LDPE is assumed to be caused by ionic impurities in XLPE, not by the additives themselves (acetophenon and cumylalcohol as byproducts of cross linking and antioxidant).     

Space charge accumulation in two power cable grades of XLPE

The accumulation of space charge in XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene), cross-linked using DCP (dicumyl peroxide) or a silane-based grafting process, was studied via the LIPP (laser-induced-pressure-pulse) technique. Planar samples 0.5 mm thick were obtained from the XLPE insulation of power distribution cables. DC fields to 10 kV/mm were applied at temperatures in the range 20 to 90°C. Usually the DCP samples developed heterocharge, and the silane samples homocharge. However, the observed space charge densities were not very different. Nearly all of the charge accumulated within 100 μm of each electrode, with very little in the remainder of the volume. Both sample types showed a near-perfect inversion of the equilibrium space charge profiles on reversing the applied voltage polarity. This observation is explained in terms of charge injection at the electrodes, electron transfer between electrode and XLPE in either direction involving the same narrow `window' of combined donor and acceptor states in the insulator, centered on the Fermi level     

Study of space charge accumulation in polyolefins submitted to acstress

The aim of the present study was to follow space charge formation under ac field (50 Hz) in polyolefins. The thermal step method was used, and charge accumulation was observed in crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE), very low density polyethylene (VLDPE), isotactic polypropylene (PP) and a PE /PP copolymer, the temperature varying from 45 to 90°C. It was found that the amount of charge accumulated under ac conditions may reach a maximum value at a given temperature, while the highest space charge was found in the polyolefin with the lowest crystallinity ratio. The conduction current characteristics of XLPE specimens show the existence of traps in the polymer at a level deeper than the potential barrier electrode/dielectric, explaining the accumulation of injected charge in the material. The injection and conduction mechanisms observed were interpreted by Schottky and Poole-Frenkel processes and used to explain the maximum accumulation of charge occurring at certain temperatures     

Space charge and anomalous discharge currents in crosslinkedpolyethylene

Transient currents in cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) have been investigated by using different parameters: temperature T, electrical field E_p and hydrostatic pressure P. Anomalous discharging currents flowing in the same direction as charging currents were observed from T=30 to 70°C, P=0.1 to 30 MPa and E_p=13 to 33 kV/mm. The space charge was measured using the pressure wave propagation method (PWP). Theoretical calculation revealed that this anomalous behavior can result from charge migration under a partial blocking condition at the electrodes. We discuss theoretical results which are in reasonable agreement with our discharge current measurements     

Polarization and space charge behavior of unaged and electricallyaged crosslinked polyethylene

The behavior of crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) for HV cable insulation under electrical stress is discussed in the paper, referring to specimens unaged and electrically aged. Polarization and space charge features are considered. The behavior of the examined insulation is evaluated through the `universal' model for polarization and space-charge associated quantities, such as the dc threshold for space charge build up and the total charge accumulated into insulation. It is shown that aging affects the magnitude and the frequency of low and intermediate frequency polarization peaks, as well as the magnitude of accumulated space charge and threshold. Charge injected or formed in the bulk, as well as microstructural modifications, could explain changes of polarization and space charge magnitude with aging     

Properties of Space Charge Distributions and Conduction Current in XLPE and LDPE under DC High Electric Field

Space charge behavior and conduction current in polyethylene under dc stress were investigated. One of the reasons for the different breakdown property in cross‐linked polyethylene (XLPE) from that in low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) may be based on the existence of cross‐linking by‐products in XLPE. Furthermore, a thermal history in cross‐linking process for XLPE may also cause of the difference. It is generally accepted that the existence of the cross‐linking by‐products increase the conduction current in XLPE under dc stress. It is also said that an anneal treatment in air atmosphere may affect to the electrical properties under dc stress. Therefore, we investigated the effect of the cross‐linking by‐products and the anneal treatment on space charge behavior and conduction current in polyethylene under dc stress. In our research, it is thought that the increasing dissipation power in XLPE is the cause of the breakdown in it under dc stress. Therefore, to calculate the dissipation power in the bulk of test sample, we measured the space charge distribution and the external circuit current simultaneously. Based on the results, we discussed the reason of the difference of the space charge properties in XLPE and LDPE focusing on the cross‐linking by‐products and the oxidation of the test samples.     

空间电荷与直流电导联合测试技术用于纳米MgO抑制XLPE中空间电荷的研究

粒径70nm的MgO以不同浓度与交联聚乙烯(XLPE)共混制成聚合物纳米复合介质。采用自主研发的四电极系统同时测量复合介质的高场电导特性和空间电荷分布。通过强场电导实验发现,在室温下,XLPE及纳米MgO/XLPE复合介质的电导机理不是单纯的空间电荷限制电流(SCLC)。此外,添加纳米MgO可以明显地提高空间电荷的注入阈值,并且在低于空间电荷注入阈值的电场下,复合介质的电导电流密度随纳米MgO浓度的增加,先减小后增大。最后从空间电荷的实验数据验证了纳米MgO能有效抑制XLPE中空间电荷,并进一步定性地认为纳米Mgo的添加提高了电子注入的电场强度阈值。     

Space change behavior in full scale ±250 kV dc XLPE cables

Space charge in full size ±250 kV dc cables was measured using a pulse-electroacoustic method. Two newly developed types of dc XLPE cables with 20 mm thick insulation were subjected to measurements at a dc voltage of 500 kV, keeping the conductor temperature either at room temperature or at 85°C. Qualitative analyses of the space charge distribution and the quantitative analysis of the electric fields in the vicinity of semicon interfaces were made. It was shown that the field in the vicinity of the inner semiconductor tends to increase by 10 to 40% when the polarity of the applied voltage was switched, in the case when the conductor was kept at 85°C. However, the distortion of the electric field was significantly smaller than that expected with conventional XLPE cables. As a result, dc cables are considered to have stable dc characteristics from the viewpoint of space charge behavior. © 1998 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 124(2): 16–28, 1998     

Space charge behavior in full-size 250 kV DC XLPE cables

The space charge in full size 250 kV HVDC power cables was measured using the pulse-electroacoustic method. Measurements of two types of newly developed DC XLPE cables with 20 mm insulation were taken under a DC voltage of 500 kV with the conductor temperature at room temperature and at 85°C. A qualitative analysis of the space-charge distribution and a quantitative analysis of the electric fields in the vicinity of semicon interfaces were conducted. It was shown that the field in the vicinity of the inner semicon tends to increase by 10-40% when the polarity of the applied voltage was reversed, in the case when the conductor was kept at 85°C. However, the distortion of the electric field was significantly less than that expected in conventional XLPE cables. As the result, the subjected DC cables are considered to have stable DC characteristics from the viewpoint of space charge-behavior     

Space charge behavior in XLPE cable insulation under 0.2-1.2 MV/cmdc fields

This report deals with space charge behavior in PE (polyethylene) under dc fields. Direct observation of time-dependent space charge profiles in 3-mm thick XLPE (crosslinked low-density polyethylene) cable insulation under dc electric fields was performed using the pulsed electroacoustic method. Stable hetero charges were formed when the field was as low as 0.2 MV/cm, and intermittent generation of packet shaped space charges and their propagation through the insulation were observed when the field was as high as 0.7 MV/cm. These phenomena were reproduced in sheet specimens of XLPE and LDPE (low-density polyethylene). It was found that hetero charges resulted from heat treatment of the XLPE specimen containing antioxidant and acetophenone, which is one of the crosslinking by-products, suggesting dissociation of the antioxidant through solvation at high temperature by acetophenone. The packet charges were easily detected when acetophenone was diffused into the LDPE specimen. However, uniformity of acetophenone distribution prevented the packet charge generation. It is suggested on the basis of several experimental results that local ionization of impurities in the insulation through solvation by acetophenone takes place assisted by high field and leads to the packet charge generation. A numerical simulation was carried out based on the above model     

Evidence of strong correlation between space-charge buildup andbreakdown in cable insulation

Many processes have been considered over the years to explain the origin of breakdown in cable insulation. Such effects as space charge build-up, tree growth, charge injection, etc. have all been discussed. Various techniques are now available to measure, in a nondestructive way, space charge distributions in insulators. These techniques, for instance the pressure wave propagation (PWP) method, can be used under applied electric stress and thus make it possible to follow the development of space charge in selected regions of the insulators. In this paper we present new evidence linking space charge buildup, tree growth and breakdown in XLPE. We have used the PWP method to monitor the charge distribution as a function of time under dc stress in high insulating thickness cable. We show that for certain insulation systems the space charge buildup can increases the local field to a value which is more than 8× the applied electric field, leading to breakdown. Post-mortem analysis followed by optical microscopy shows the presence of electrical trees, the breakdown channel being centered on one of them. The study of space charge evolution in practical insulations permits an understanding of the role of space charge in dc breakdowns. This understanding enables the development of technologies to suppress this effect and hence realize practical dc XLPE transmission cables     

Space charge measurements in polymeric HV insulation materials

This paper reports on a study using the laser induced pressure propagation (LIPP) method to measure the space charge characteristics in bulk crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation under dc electric stress. Particular attention has been given to the quantitative appraisal of calibration parameters, and the resultant estimations of space charge and electric stress distributions. A method is described for analyzing the measured raw data from ramp voltage and aging tests to give an estimate of charge and stress without resorting to a complicated mathematical exercise. The consequence of stress enhancement due to the trapped charge on the life of the insulation is estimated using the empirical inverse law. Using analysis of variance and a multivariate analysis technique, the effects of treatment and type of XLPE on the space charge characteristics are also discussed     

Measurement of space charge distribution in epoxy resin

Internal space charge behavior of insulating materials has recently attracted attention of many researchers, and a large number of experimental studies were carried out by using the materials for dc cables, such as XLPE, LDPE, and HDPE. Epoxy resins are used for insulation under strong electric fields in power apparatus and in electronic devices, and we investigated the behavior of internal space charge using the pulsed electroacoustic method. Two types of epoxy resins were studied: insulation-grade and craft-grade. When dc electric fields were applied to the craft resins treated by immersing them into room-temperature water for 8 and 24 h, positive and negative charges accumulated near the anode and the cathode, respectively, and the charge distribution changed with the immersion time. On the other hand, no charge was observed in the insulation-grade epoxy resin. Next, we treated the samples by immersing them into 100 °C water for 8 h. When the sample was treated for 8 h, hetero charge distribution, which means positive charges near the cathode and negative charges near the anode, was observed. This result is consistent with a previous paper reporting that by chemical analysis, secondary decomposition had occurred. These results show that water and temperature influence the internal space charge behavior of epoxy resins. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 129(3): 9–16, 1999     

Measurement of space charge in XLPE insulation under 50 Hz acelectric stresses using the LIPP method

Space charge is believed to play an important role in ac electrical ageing of polymeric insulation, particularly where electrical treeing is the dominant cause of premature failure. The majority of work to date has been on the space charge characteristics under dc electric stresses, whereas work on the dynamics and the role of space charge on electrical breakdown under 50 Hz ac conditions have only received limited attention. Consequently, a full understanding of space charge trapping and dynamics under ac operating conditions is required if ever more reliable polymer insulated cable systems are to be developed. The present paper reports on aspects of an on-going investigation into the measurement of space charge in XLPE insulation under 50 Hz ac stress using the laser induced pressure propagation (LIPP) technique. Some important features of the method are described such as, point on wave control of the laser and use of correction factors to offset variations in the laser power and ablation of the target material. Emphasis has also been placed on establishing a simple method for analysing data, termed "X-plots". Some preliminary results of the space charge and electric stress distribution of un-degassed and degassed crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) plaques aged electrically under ac stress (30 kV_peak/mm) for 24 h are also presented     

Generation and Dissipation of Negative Heterocharges in XLPE and EPR

Charge generation in cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) under dc stress are influenced strongly by inclusions. The inclusions influencing charge generation are cross-linking byproducts, antioxidants, and moisture. These inclusions particularly influence the generation of negative heterocharges observed near positive electrodes, which produce high electric stress regions in XLPE cable insulation under dc voltage. Because a high electric field might cause dielectric breakdown of high-voltage equipment, it is important to minimize negative heterocharge accumulation. Consequently, the authors performed experiments to clarify the negative heterocharge generation mechanism in XLPE and EPR. The authors first studied the influence of cross-linking byproduct and moisture on negative heterocharge generation to clarify the mechanism. The authors next performed experiments to elucidate the effect of antioxidants on heterocharge generation, which revealed that the negative heterocharge is generated in XLPE insulation containing sulfur-containing phenolic antioxidant, or sulfur-type antioxidant. This heterocharge is presumed to be created by the combined effect of the antioxidant and acetophenone. Furthermore, the authors studied the dissipation of negative heterocharges in XLPE and EPR, clarifying that the dissipation of negative heterocharges in EPR is much faster than that in XLPE. This paper presents results of these studies.     

Correlation between space charge distribution and water-treelocation in aged XLPE cable

The correlation between charge distribution in an aged crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) cable and the location of water trees has been studied. The space charge radial distributions at different angle in the insulating wall of a service-aged XLPE coaxial cable, induced by application of a DC stress, were measured using the pulsed electroacoustic method. Furthermore, a cross section of sliced insulating wall was observed with an optical microscope to compare with the radial space charge distribution. The cable under investigation was electrically aged in service at 6.6 kV AC for 25 years in wet conditions. Water trees were found at the position in which space charge was observed. On the other hand, no water tree was found at the position in which the space charge was not observed. Judging from these results, the space charge measurement seems to be useful for the diagnosis of water trees in aged cables