Effects of microstructure on the strain-controlled fatigue failure behavior of an aluminium-alloy/ceramic-particle composite

A study has been made to understand the cyclic fatigue and cyclic fracture characteristics of a cast aluminium alloy metal matrix discontinuously reinforced with particulate silicon carbide. The Al/SiC_p composite was strained to failure over a range of strain amplitudes giving lives of less than 10⁴ cycles to failure. The specimens were cycled by using tension-compression loading under total strain control. In the as-cast condition, the aluminum-alloy/ceramic composite displayed combinations of cyclic hardening and softening to failure at higher cyclic-strain amplitudes, and progressive softening to failure at low cyclic-strain amplitudes. The spray-atomized and deposited composite exhibited softening to failure at the higher cyclic-strain amplitudes and combinations of softening and hardening behavior at the lower strain amplitudes. The observed hardening and softening behavior is a mechanical effect and attributed to concurrent and competing influences of interactions between cyclic deformation and composite microstructure during cyclic straining. The processed microstructure exhibited better cyclic ductility and cyclic-strain resistance than the as-cast composite microstructure. The cyclic fatigue behavior of the alloy is briefly interpreted in the light of composite microstructural effects, plastic strain amplitude and concomitant response stress.     

动态压缩下一种碳纤维织物增强复合材料的各向异性力学性能实验研究

为获得一种碳纤维二维正交平纹机织布增强树脂基复合材料准静态和动态压缩力学性能, 对其三个主方向(垂直于碳布方向、碳布经向、碳布纬向) , 分别利用Inst ron 试验机和SHPB 实验技术, 进行了准静态压缩和动态压缩实验。得到了三个主方向从低应变率(10 -3 / s) 到高应变率(约103 / s) 下的压缩应力2应变曲线和压缩强度, 并通过分析得到了三个主方向上的动态压缩响应特点: 垂直于碳布方向的力学性能及其与应变率的相关性主要由树脂基体所控制; 碳布经向和纬向的力学性能主要由碳纤维所控制, 并且和纤维初始微屈曲相关。最后, 分别给出三个主方向上的压缩强度和弹性模量与应变率相关性的表达式。      

A cohesive micromechanic fatigue model. Part I: Basic mechanisms

A model which identifies a cohesive (bonding) reaction between a broken element (molecule, or chain) and its neighbor as the main micro-scale source of fatigue failure, is proposed. By applying statistical laws, the macro response is revealed. Three types of macro damage accumulation functions emerge, in agreement with known experimental, as a direct result of different values for the micro-material parameters. The reference type shows secondary and tertiary stages, the second type includes an additional primary stage, and the third type, exhibiting an endurance limit, has a primary stage only.

A very well known empirical power law relationship between the fatigue stress and the number of cycles to failure is obtained analytically for the reference type, when a Weibull strength distribution function for the micro-elements is used. The micro-scale roots of the model enables the use of physical internal variables for the damage evolution equations. Thus, a clear insight of the macro response, including the existence of an endurance limit, is achieved through basic mechanism on the micro-scale.

Experimental correlations with available fatigue data for different materials, including metals, plastics and composites, show the general validity of the model, in spite of the diversity of their micro-structures.

It may be proposed that in each material type, the physical “element” is different (i.e. molecules for plastics, grains for metals, etc.), but their response towards fatigue is similar: a non-reversible bonding between a broken element and its neighbor.     

Tension-tension fatigue of a cross-woven C/SiC composite

The tension-tension fatigue behavior of a cross woven C/SiC composite was studied in terms of damage modes and damage development. The fatigue stress versus life diagram (S-N) curve and an endurance limit of 320–340 MPa (about 80% tensile UTS) for 10⁶ cycles were obtained for the C/SiC composite. Different fatigue behaviors were found for samples that failed during fatigue and for samples that survived 10⁶ cycles. Seven fatigue damage modes were observed, the development of which were used to explain the different fatigue behaviors. For the fatigue-failed samples, the degrees of damage of the seven modes increased with increase of cycles, leading to an increase in elapsed strain and a decrease in composite modulus. For fatigue-survived samples, the development of all the damage modes except for fiber breaking caused an initial increase of elapsed strain and decrease of composite modulus, but at high cycles, fiber bundle realignment and straightening in these samples led to partial recovery of the modulus and cessation of the damage development.     

复合材料疲劳寿命预测

在疲劳载荷作用下,复合材料的弹性模量会随着载荷循环数的增加而不断下降,而材料中的内部损伤则不断增大。为此,本文提出复合材料的疲劳模量和累积应变的概念,并由此定义出三种预测复合材料疲劳寿命的疲劳损伤模型。文中应用这三种模型对单应力水平和多应力水平下的玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料的疲劳寿命进行了估算,并同实验结果进行了比较。     

A cohesive micromechanic fatigue model. Part II: Fatigue-creep interaction and Goodman diagram

A Cohesive Micromechanic Fatigue Model (CMFM), which identifies a chemical reaction between a broken chain and its neighbor as the main micro-scale source of fatigue failure has been developed recently. The successive chain breakages which control the damage evolution were characterized by the statistical strength distribution of the chains and the probability of the neighbor to break. The model explained the power law S-N curve for high cycle fatigue and the endurance limit phenomenon.

In this study, the basic concept is expanded by defining two kinds of breakage sources for the neighbors. A dynamic type, associated with the local transient disturbance, occurring during breakage, and a static type, related to the relative motion between adjacent chains. The first is dominated by the strain at the breaking point and leads to a creep like macro response. The second is a function of the maximum strain difference experienced during unloading, which causes fatigue failure.

The interaction between the two mechanisms gives a total macro response which depends on both the mean and the alternate stress. Results provide a theoretical explanation to the empirical “Goodman diagram” and to the low cycle fatigue behavior. The effect of different probability functions for the chemical reaction was studied. An activation type was found most suitable for predicting the macro response, and a Weibull distribution has been used. All material parameters which were introduced on the microscale, have a direct, uncoupled outcome on the macro response.     

Fatigue damage of high performance concrete through a 2D mesoscopic lattice model

Based on high-resolution digital images of High Performance Concrete (HPC) microstructures, a two-dimensional mesoscopic lattice model which accounts for fatigue damage is proposed. Fatigue damage is introduced by considering the coupled effects of loading cycles and tensile strain on stiffness degradation of microstructural lattice elements under fatigue loading. The ultimate tensile strain is defined as the failure threshold value for microstructural lattice elements. Further, the effects of the lattice element properties (i.e. size and finite element type) and fatigue loading parameters (i.e. stress levels) on the damage mechanisms of the HPC microstructure are investigated and discussed. It is found that lattice truss elements 1 mm long are satisfactory, giving also their smaller computational requirements in comparison to beam counterparts, to investigate fatigue damage in the HPC microstructure. The numerical results of the present model are consistent with experimental observations.     

Comparison of Fatigue Life Between C/SiC and SiC/SiC Ceramic-Matrix Composites at Room and Elevated Temperatures

In this paper, the comparison of fatigue life between C/SiC and SiC/SiC ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) at room and elevated temperatures has been investigated. An effective coefficient of the fiber volume fraction along the loading direction (ECFL) was introduced to describe the fiber architecture of preforms. Under cyclic fatigue loading, the fibers broken fraction was determined by combining the interface wear model and fibers statistical failure model at room temperature, and interface/fibers oxidation model, interface wear model and fibers statistical failure model at elevated temperatures in the oxidative environments. When the broken fibers fraction approaches to the critical value, the composites fatigue fracture. The fatigue life S–N curves and fatigue limits of cross-ply, 2D and 3D C/SiC and SiC/SiC composites at room temperature, 550 °C in air, 750 °C in dry and humid condition, 800 °C in air, 1000 °C in argon and air, 1100 °C, 1300 °C and 1500 °C in vacuum, have been predicted. At room temperature, the fatigue limit of 2D C/SiC composite with ECFL of 20 % lies between 0.78 and 0.8 tensile strength; and the fatigue limit of 2D SiC/SiC composite with ECFL of 20 % lies between 0.75 and 0.85 tensile strength. The fatigue limit of 2D C/SiC composite increases to 0.83 tensile strength with ECFL increasing from 20 to 22.5 %, and the fatigue limit of 3D C/SiC composite is 0.85 tensile strength with ECFL of 37 %. The fatigue performance of 2D SiC/SiC composite is better than that of 2D C/SiC composite at elevated temperatures in oxidative environment.     

Al2O3与两种热塑性树脂协同改性双马来酰亚胺基复合材料微观结构与性能

以3,3’-二烯丙基双酚A(BBA)、双酚A双烯丙基醚(BBE)为活性稀释剂、4,4’-二氨基二苯甲烷双马来酰亚胺(MBMI)为反应单体合成聚合物基体(MBAE),以两种热塑性树脂(聚醚砜(PES)和磺化聚醚醚酮(SPEEK))为增韧剂、以溶胶-凝胶法(Sol-Gel)制备的纳米Al₂O₃为改性剂,制备了Al₂O₃-PES-SPEEK/MBAE复合材料,并采用FTIR、SEM、冲击强度、弯曲强度、弯曲模量和热失重测试的方法研究复合材料的微观形貌、力学性能和耐热性。结果表明:SPEEK中存在磺酸基团,微观结构更松散,磺化度约为41.3%;Al₂O₃为纳米级短纤维状晶体,表面含有活性羟基。Al₂O₃-PES-SPEEK/MBAE复合材料的微观形貌表明:适量的PES、SPEEK和Al₂O₃在基体树脂中分散均匀,断面形貌呈鱼鳞状,断裂纹不规则且发散,断裂方式为韧性断裂。力学性能测试结果显示,当PES、SPEEK及Al₂O₃质量分数分别为3 wt%、2 wt%和3 wt%时,Al₂O₃-PES-SPEEK/MBAE复合材料的弯曲强度、弯曲模量和冲击强度为172.9 MPa、4.7 GPa和21.4 kJ/m2,分别比基体树脂提高了73.1%、74.1%和125.3%,并且Al₂O₃-PES-SPEEK/MBAE复合材料的热分解温度为453.5℃,比基体树脂提高了15.4℃,Al₂O₃-PES-SPEEK/MBAE复合材料的力学性能和耐热性有较大提高。      

Development of an image-based numerical model for predicting the microstructure–property relationship in alumina trihydrate (ATH) filled poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)

Particulate composites are found in a wide range of applications. Their heterogeneous microstructure affects their bulk behavior and structural performance, however tools for predicting this important structure-property relationship are still lacking. In this study, a numerical method that can provide predictions of the mechanical response of a particulate polymeric matrix composite as a function of volume fraction and particle mean diameter is presented. The work is derived for an alumina trihydrate filled poly(methyl methacrylate) but the methodology is generic and can be used for any particulate composite. Representative Volume elements are determined through images obtained from scanning electron microscopy. The model takes into account the possibility of failure through interface debonding as well as cracks through the matrix. The model predictions for the modulus and fracture strength of the composites are validated through independent experiments on the composite. The numerical results are also used to qualitatively explain the trends measured regarding the fracture toughness of the composites. Compared to other literature on particulate composites, our study is the first to report accurate stress–strain distributions as well as fracture predictions whilst all the necessary model parameters defining the failure criteria are all derived through independent experiments. This paves the way for a relatively simple methodology for determining structure-property relationships in composites design, enabling smarter material utilization and optimal mechanical properties.     

Multi-scale fatigue behaviour modelling of Al–Al2O3 short fibre composites

Using very heterogeneous materials in structural parts submitted to cyclic loadings, this paper presents an elasto-plastic micromechanical model. After recalling the homogenisation principle based on a mean field theory, non-linear kinematic and isotropic strain hardening is introduced into the matrix. Validation is made on an Al–3.5%Cu/SiC particle composite, and an Al–Si7Mg/Al₂O₃ fibre composite is treated as a first application. Damage is introduced into the model using a fibre failure criterion. It is based on the evolution of the volume fraction of broken fibres as a function of the maximum principal stress in the fibre family. The damage law is identified by means of in situ tensile tests performed inside the scanning electronic microscope. The number of broken fibres is determined as a function of the applied load and the number of cycles. The model predicts the fatigue behaviour, the loss of stiffness, the volume fraction of broken fibres for different volume fractions, aspect ratios, distributions of orientation and distributions of strength of the fibres. The effect of the mechanical fatigue properties of the matrix is also studied.     

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of porous sintered steels

The microstructure and mechanical properties of sintered Fe–0.85Mo–Ni steels were investigated as a function of sintered density. A quantitative analysis of microstructure was correlated with tensile and fatigue behavior to understand the influence of pore size, shape, and distribution on mechanical behavior. Tensile strength, Young's modulus, strain-to-failure, and fatigue strength all increased with a decrease in porosity. The decrease in Young's modulus with increasing porosity was predicted by analytical modeling. Two-dimensional microstructure-based finite element modeling showed that the enhanced tensile and fatigue behavior of the denser steels could be attributed to smaller, more homogeneous, and more spherical porosity which resulted in more homogeneous deformation and decreased strain localization in the material. The implications of pore size, morphology, and distribution on the mechanical behavior and fracture of P/M steels are discussed.     

Frequency effects on the fatigue behaviour on carbon fibre reinforced polymer laminates

Test frequency exerts a considerable influence on dynamic mechanical behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced materials. In this study the effect of test frequency on the fatigue behaviour of the T300/914C system, a carbon fibre/epoxy matrix composite, is examined. Tension-tension fatigue tests were carried out at various stress levels and at three test frequencies (5, 10 and 20 Hz) for three specimen orientations (unidirectional, (0)₈, crossply (0°/90°)_4s and angleply (±45°c)_4s). A number of dynamic mechanical properties were monitored throughout specimen lifetimes and subsequently analysed — stress/life behaviour, maximum strain, normalised fatigue modulus, dynamic loss modulus, damping factor and specimen temperature. Frequency effects are found to profoundly influence the fatigue behaviour of both crossply and angle ply specimens. Angleply specimen fatigue response exhibits a strong dependence on test frequency, a fact that is reflected in the dynamic mechanical property responses monitored. The data obtained for unidirectional specimens is inconclusive due to the large degree of fatigue scatter observed.     

高温炭化处理对三维五向碳/酚醛编织复合材料拉伸性能的影响

对未经炭化和经不同温度炭化处理后的三维五向碳/酚醛编织复合材料进行了纵向和横向拉伸实验, 获得了拉伸应力-应变曲线, 并确定了材料的拉伸强度、 拉伸模量、 破坏应变和泊松比等主要力学性能, 分析了这类材料经不同温度炭化处理后拉伸力学性能的变化规律。对试件拉伸实验后的破坏断口进行了宏观和微观分析, 探讨了材料的变形和破坏机理。实验结果表明: 随炭化处理温度的增加, 三维五向碳/酚醛编织复合材料的纵向、 横向拉伸强度和拉伸模量均呈先降后升的趋势, 存在一个转折温度, 超过该温度, 材料的拉伸强度和拉伸模量从下降变为上升, 但拉伸模量的变化幅度较小; 但是, 随着炭化温度的升高, 材料的破坏应变是逐渐降低的。通过形貌观察和树脂热分解机理分析, 认为在不同的炭化处理温度下, 材料的细观组织结构演变存在明显的差异, 因此造成了材料力学性能的变化。      

An experimental study on the in situ strength of SiC fibre in unidirectional SiC/Al composites

In order to investigate the effect of strain rate and high temperature exposure on the mechanical properties of the fibre in the unidirectional fibre reinforced metal-matrix composite, in situ SiC fibre bundles are extracted from two kinds of SiC/Al composite wires, which are heat-treated at two different temperatures (exposed in the air at 400 and 600 °C for 40 min after composition). Tensile tests for these two fibre bundles are performed at different strain rates (quasi-static test: 0.001 s⁻¹, dynamic test: 200, 700, and 1200 s⁻¹) and the stress–strain curves are obtained. The experimental results show that their mechanical properties are rate-dependent, the modulus E, strength σ_b and unstable strain _b (the strain corresponding to σ_b) all increase with increasing strain rate. Compared with the mechanical properties of the original SiC fibre, those of the two in situ fibres degrade to some extent, the degradation of the in situ fibre extracted from the composite wire exposed at 600 °C (hereafter referred to as in situ fibre 2) is more serious than that of the in situ fibre extracted from the composite wire exposed at 400 °C (hereafter referred to as in situ fibre 1). The mechanism of the degradation is investigated. A bi-modal Weibull statistical constitutive equation is established to describe the stress–strain relationship of the two in situ fibre bundles. The simulated stress–strain curves agree well with the experimental results.     

正交铺设陶瓷基复合材料单轴拉伸行为

采用细观力学方法对正交铺设陶瓷基复合材料单轴拉伸应力-应变行为进行了研究。采用剪滞模型分析了复合材料出现损伤时的细观应力场。采用断裂力学方法、 临界基体应变能准则、 应变能释放率准则及Curtin统计模型4种单一失效模型确定了90°铺层横向裂纹间距、 0°铺层基体裂纹间距、 纤维/基体界面脱粘长度和纤维失效体积分数。将剪滞模型与4种单一损伤模型结合, 对各损伤阶段应力-应变曲线进行了模拟, 建立了复合材料强韧性预测模型。与室温下正交铺设陶瓷基复合材料单轴拉伸应力-应变曲线进行了对比, 各个损伤阶段的应力-应变、 失效强度及应变与试验数据吻合较好。分析了90°铺层横向断裂能、 0°铺层纤维/基体界面剪应力、 界面脱粘能、 纤维Weibull模量对复合材料损伤及拉伸应力-应变曲线的影响。      

Modeling the Tensile Strength of Carbon Fiber − Reinforced Ceramic − Matrix Composites Under Multiple Fatigue Loading

An analytical method has been developed to investigate the effect of interface wear on the tensile strength of carbon fiber ? reinforced ceramic ? matrix composites (CMCs) under multiple fatigue loading. The Budiansky ? Hutchinson ? Evans shear ? lag model was used to describe the micro stress field of the damaged composite considering fibers failure and the difference existed in the new and original interface debonded region. The statistical matrix multicracking model and fracture mechanics interface debonding criterion were used to determine the matrix crack spacing and interface debonded length. The interface shear stress degradation model and fibers strength degradation model have been adopted to analyze the interface wear effect on the tensile strength of the composite subjected to multiple fatigue loading. Under tensile loading, the fibers failure probabilities were determined by combining the interface wear model and fibers failure model based on the assumption that the fiber strength is subjected to two ? parameter Weibull distribution and the loads carried by broken and intact fibers satisfy the Global Load Sharing criterion. The composite can no longer support the applied load when the total loads supported by broken and intact fibers approach its maximum value. The conditions of a single matrix crack and matrix multicrackings for tensile strength corresponding to multiple fatigue peak stress levels and different cycle number have been analyzed.     

纤维增强聚合物基复合材料的疲劳损伤模型

从微观离散分子力学出发,考虑力学化学的交互作用和材料微观组织的影响,建立了纤维增强聚合物基复合材料的力学化学分子链疲劳损伤模型在模型中引入表示基体树脂和界面分子链断裂数占材料分子链总数的比例Am和Al来描述基体断裂主导和界面断裂主导的损伤,给出剩余强度与疲劳过程中微观断裂机理、结构参数、物理化学参数和力学性能变化之间的关系与短玻璃纤维增强树脂基复合材料(SMC)的恒载荷疲劳实验结果比较,本模型预测的疲劳剩余强度与实验值吻合得比较好,     

Dynamic-mechanical properties of a novel composite intervertebral disc prosthesis

Over the past years, a tremendous effort has been made to develop an intervertebral disc (IVD) prosthesis with suitable biological, mechanical and transport properties. However, it has been frequently reported that current prostheses undergo failure mainly due to the mismatch between the mechanical properties of the conventional device and the spine segment to be replaced. The aim of the present work was to develop a poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PHEMA/PMMA) (80/20 w/w) semi-interpenetrating polymer network (s-IPN) composite hydrogel reinforced with poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) fibres, and to investigate the static and dynamic mechanical properties. Filament winding and moulding technologies were employed to obtain the composite IVD prostheses with the unique complex structure that is peculiar to the natural IVD. The compressive properties analysis showed the typical J-shaped stress-strain curve which is displayed by natural IVDs. Compressive modulus varied from 84 to 120 MPa, as a function of the strain rate, and stress was higher than 10 MPa. These values are in the range of those of the natural lumbar IVDs. No failure of the prostheses has occurred during fatigue test performed for ten million cycles in physiological solution. Dynamic mechanical tests have confirmed the composite IVD prostheses exhibited appropriate viscoelastic properties.     

材料疲劳寿命的影响因素和研究方法

材料的疲劳寿命是机械可靠性设计的基础,也是疲劳性能研究的主要内容。大量的研究结果表明疲劳寿命具有离散性的特点,并且符合一定的统计分布规律。概述了材料疲劳寿命研究的重要性,分析了材料微观结构及实验模型对疲劳寿命的影响以及疲劳寿命研究的数理统计基础,分别介绍了正态分布和威布尔分布的特点,综述了数据处理方法在疲劳寿命研究中的具体应用。