Breakage behaviour of enzyme granules in a repeated impact test

In many industries, handling or processing of relatively fragile particles takes place and predictions are required whether a significant proportion of the particles will be damaged. These processes have been designed and controlled solely on the basis of particle size and shape. Another parameter that needs to be introduced is particle strength. The stringent environmental laws demand improved particle mechanical quality, which has given rise to the need for a more accurate and fundamental particle strength measurement and its application in modelling and control of particulate processes. Particles need to show good resistance against static and dynamic loads.

The present paper deals with the study of breakage behaviour of different enzyme granules subjected to repeated impacts using a new instrument developed at the Delft University of Technology. The impact test involves bombarding the particles against a flat target repeatedly. The main feature of this new test is its ability to impact a large number of particles against a flat target repeatedly, and generate extremely reproducible results. Testing a large number of particles has the advantage of producing statistically correct results. The repeated impacts provide information on the breakage behaviour of the particles based on their history. In the new impact test enzyme granules can undergo very low impact velocities of the order of 5 m s⁻¹. These low impact velocities lead to attrition and chipping of the granules.

The current paper presents preliminary results on the breakage behaviour of the new impact test and its basic advantages over already existing tests. Furthermore, experiments were performed on enzyme granules, and the breakage mechanisms determined, depending on the change in size and shape of the particles.     

Review: An investigation of single particle breakage tests for coal handling system of the gladstone port

Aspects of the literature on single particle breakage test have been reviewed in this article. The test procedures that are commonly used by the researchers in examining and measuring the breakage characteristics of the ore and coal particles are also discussed. It appears that most of the common size distribution function fitting techniques were not suitable for accurate representation of the size distributions obtained from a pendulum breaking process. The single impact test, double impact test (drop weight test, pendulum test) and slow compression test can be used to study the behaviour of the single particle breakage events. The single impact test, slow compression test and drop weight test cannot measure the energy utilization pattern in single particle breakage events, but this can be determined from the pendulum test.The energy utilized for breakage was predominantly dependent upon the size and shape of the specimen, level of input energy and the breakage properties of the specimen. This review highlights that the size distribution curves were linear in the fine particle region and have varying curvature in the coarser region, the gradient of the linear fine particle region of the size distribution curves increases with an increase in the specific comminution energy. The comminution energy increases with input energy at lower levels of input energy but at the higher levels of input energy the comminution energy did not show the same proportional increase. At a given level of input energy, the size distribution resulting from the breakage of the particles by the pendulum apparatus can be represented by a one-parameter family of curves.     

Influence of mechanical properties on impact fracture: Prediction of the milling behaviour of pharmaceutical powders by nanoindentation

The impact grinding behaviour of materials can be characterized by the two breakage parameters f_Mat and xW_m,min [Vogel and Peukert, Powder Technol. 129 (2003) 101-110]. These parameters are usually determined by single particle milling tests. The parameters are useful for predicting the selection function and the breakage function and thus enable modelling of impact milling processes. So far, no detailed correlations have been established between the breakage parameters f_Mat and xW_m,min and intrinsic material properties. In this work, we study the correlation between the breakage parameters of pharmaceutical powders and their mechanical properties (hardness, Young's modulus and fracture toughness) that are determined from indentation experiments. It will be shown that f_Mat and xW_m,min can be expressed in terms of the brittleness index (defined as the ratio of hardness to fracture toughness H/K_c). This correlation allows the prediction of the breakage probability of a material by using only a small number of crystals.     

Effect of structural characteristics on impact breakage of agglomerates

The mechanical properties and evolved structure of agglomerates depend strongly on the manufacturing method. There is a great interest in finding a simple way of establishing a rank order in their processing behaviour, e.g., the ease with which they could be dispersed in fluids. For this reason, the breakage propensity of two types of detergent agglomerates produced by different processes but with the same formulation has been evaluated under different conditions by impact testing with a view to diagnose differences in mechanical properties and structure arising from their manufacturing method. The effects of impact velocity, agglomerate size, impact angle, fatigue, humidity, and temperature have been analysed. Both samples show extensive plastic deformation due to the elongation and eventual rupture of the interparticle bridges, especially for the humidified samples. Reducing the temperature increases the extent of breakage substantially. The impact test results of samples kept at −20 °C show brittle failure mode, whilst those of oblique impacts at 45° and ambient conditions show a semi-brittle failure mode by shear deformation. Drying strengthens the agglomerates presumably due to the solidification of bridges. In contrast, humidifying the granules decreases their strength. A general comparison of the impact test results of both samples for different feed sizes shows that, due to the structural differences, the breakage trend of these two types of agglomerate varies with increasing agglomerate size.     

Numerical simulation of particle breakage in dry impact pulverizer

A novel method to simultaneously simulate particle motion and its breakage in a dry impact pulverizer was developed. The motion of particles in the pulverizer was calculated using a discrete phase model (DPM)‐computational fluid dynamics (CFD) coupling model. When the particle impacts against a vessel wall, impact stress acting on the particle is calculated from Hertz's theory as a function of the impact velocity. At the same time, the particle strength as a function of the particle size is calculated from Griffith's theory. If the impact stress is larger than the particle strength, the particle is broken and replaced with smaller fragments. The size distribution of the fragments is obtained from a breakage function proposed. The motion of the fragments is calculated again by using the DPM‐CFD coupling model. By repeating the above calculations over the whole particles, the grinding phenomenon can be simulated. The calculated results showed good agreement with the experimental one, and validity of the proposed method was confirmed. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 59: 3601–3611, 2013     

简支梁冲击强度的测定

简支梁冲击强度是塑料力学性能的重要指标之一,塑料材料冲击强度是工程塑料机械强度设计的依据,它反映材料在高速载荷下的韧性或对断裂的抗冲击能力,因此测量简支梁冲击强度就有重要的意义。由于简支梁冲击试验是测试试样破坏时单位面积所吸收的能量,因此影响因素很多。采用注塑成型方法和机械加工方法制备煤基高密度聚乙烯产品试样,对测定过程和影响因素进行了探讨得出了最优化的实验参数。     

竖式移动床层中散料颗粒破碎的离散元分析

建立了竖式移动床层中颗粒破碎的炉料下降运动模型,采用离散单元法对干法熄焦炉和烧结余热回收竖罐两种竖冷装置内不同形状、尺寸及强度颗粒料的下落运动和破碎过程进行了数值计算。结果表明,颗粒在下落过程中所受压力先逐渐增大,进入出料区后又逐渐减小,颗粒破碎情况与所受压力密切相关;焦炭在干熄炉内下落到斜道区时,由于炉体直径扩张,料层所受平均压力减小,破碎速率有所减慢。由于烧结矿强度相对较小,刚进入烧结竖罐就发生破碎现象,而炉体直径扩张对破碎影响不大;受固定炉墙的影响,颗粒在靠近炉墙位置处更容易破碎。分析不同形状颗粒的破碎过程发现,正方形颗粒从某一顶点沿对角线逐渐破碎,长条形颗粒从一侧向另一侧逐渐破碎,而缺角的不规则颗粒从形状缺失一侧开始向内破碎。     

Numerical simulation of breakage of two-dimensional polygon-shaped particles using discrete element method

Using DEM (Discrete Element Method), a model is presented to simulate the breakage of two-dimensional polygon-shaped particles. In this model each uniform (uncracked) particle is replaced with smaller inter-connected sub-particles which are bonded with each other. If the bond between these sub-particles breaks, breakage will happen. With the help of this model, it is possible to study the influence of particle breakage on macro and micro mechanical parameters. In this simulation, the evolution of microstructure in granular assemblies can be seen by tracing of coordination number during the shear process. Also variation of contact normal, normal force and tangential force anisotropy can be tracked. To do so, two series of biaxial test simulations (breakage is enabled and disabled) are conducted on assemblies of two-dimensional polygon-shaped particles and the results are compared. The results are presented in terms of macro and micro mechanical behavior for different confining pressures.     

Revealing cracking and breakage behaviours of gibbsite particles

Mitigating gibbsite particle cracking and breakage during industrial alumina production can increase the quality of smelter grade alumina product by reducing the ultrafine particle content. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the particle cracking during static calcination and the breakage of calcined gibbsite particles under external force. In this work, we investigated the impact of the calcination ramping rate and the crystallite size on gibbsite particle cracking during static calcination. A slow ramping rate and a large pristine crystallite size tend to increase particle cracking. Apart from the study of particle cracking behaviour, we also investigated the breakage of calcined gibbsite particle under external force. Cracks on the particle surface can initiate breakage within the crystallite and along the grain boundary under external force. The breakage within crystallite occurs as the cleavage of the crystallite, while the breakage along the grain boundary leads to the shedding of a whole crystallite. We further explored the factors influencing the strength of calcined gibbsite particles. With increasing calcination temperature, the strength of particle increases when gibbsite converts to boehmite, and then decreases when boehmite converts into amorphous alumina. Particles containing smaller crystallites and calcined with fast ramping rates exhibit higher resistance to breakage.     

Modelling the impaction of a micron particle with a powdery layer

The interaction of an incoming micron particle with already deposited particles is an important factor in particulate fouling of heat exchangers. A numerical model was developed based on the discrete element method to simulate this interaction. The contact forces between the colliding particles are based on the concept of contact mechanics, which takes plastic deformation of particles into consideration. The numerical model predicts the critical sticking and removal velocities, which are important parameters in determining the fouling rate of heat exchangers. Very detailed information of the bed dynamics can be extracted from the numerical model. It appears that the time required for a particle to be ejected out of a bed of particles due to an incident particle impact is proportional to the interacting particles diameter and to the square root of the number of bed layers. The maximum indentation in an incident particle hitting a bed of particles is proven theoretically and numerically to be directly proportional to the velocity and diameter of the incident particle if plastic deformation occurs. Experiments were carried out in a vacuumed column to validate the numerical model. In the experiments, incident particles dropped onto a bed of particles and the sticking, bouncing and removal behaviour were measured as a function of the incident particle impact speed. Both the numerics and the experiments showed that there are velocity regimes at which the incident particle sticks, bounces off or removes particles from the bed of particles. The regimes overlap due to the impact angle effect. The numerical model predictions regarding the critical sticking and removal velocities are in agreement with the measured values.     

The Effects of Operating Conditions on the Milling of Microcrystalline Cellulose

There is little detailed work relating the physical process that occurs during milling to the mechanical properties and mechanism of particle breakage. Very often, the selection of an appropriate mill and subsequently the determination of its optimum operating conditions are by trial and error. This paper look into optimizing the operating conditions of a ball mill through statistical analysis and the effect of temperature on the milling behavior of a common pharmaceutical excipient, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). In addition, the bulk milling behavior of MCC is compared to its single particle breakage behavior. In this work, milling is conducted in a Retsch single ball mill where a bed of powder is subjected to impact by a steel ball in a horizontal cylindrical container. The container is vibrated horizontally at a set frequency, causing the ball to impact on the bed of particles. It is found that the finest MCC product can be achieved by milling a 2 g batch of material using a 12 mm ball size and at a frequency of 18 Hz. Temperature is found to have insignificant effect on the extent of breakage of MCC in both bulk milling and single particle impact testing. Milling and single particle impact experiments have both shown that MCC is more susceptible to breakage with increasing strain rate. In conclusion, the single impact tests could be used successfully for predicting the bulk milling behavior of the material, as shown in the case of MCC.     

Attrition strength of different coated agglomerates

The goal of this paper is to test the strength against attrition of coated particles. What is the influence of different coating materials on different particles? To answer this question, two different core materials are coated with four different water-soluble polymers. The core materials are micro-crystalline cellulose (MCC) and sodium benzoate granules in the size range between 850 and . The coated granules are attrition tested in the repeated impact tester (RIT). During attrition testing the uncoated MCC granules do not show any attrition. When the MCC granules are coated, all the attrition observed is due to the failure of the coating. When the sodium benzoate (Purox-S) granules are attrition tested, significant attrition is observed. Coating the sodium benzoate granules with the polymers increases the strength against attrition. During attrition three typical failure modes are distinguished viz. the peeling mechanism, the erosion mechanism and the layer fatigue mechanism. For the four different coatings different attrition mechanisms are observed indicating that the polymer mechanical properties play an important role. For example, a higher molecular mass for poly(ethylene glycol) increases the mechanical stability of the granules. It is now important to study the mechanical polymer properties in more detail, to explain further the observed failure modes. With the RIT it is possible to select the optimal settings in the coating process, to optimize the coating material or composition and finally to optimize the coating thickness.     

The production of binderless granules and their mechanical characteristics

A granulation procedure is described for preparing model binderless granules from spherical polystyrene colloids. The deformation and breakage behaviour of the granules was also studied. Impact and slow diametrical compression experiments were used to simulate the mechanical response of the granules at high and low strain rates, respectively. They were found to deform elasto-plastically before fracturing in a semi-brittle manner. Densification or rearrangement of particle packing in the deformed region was concluded to be the main mechanism for energy dissipation under both impact and diametrical compression. In addition, the surface chemistry of the constituent particles within the granules was found to be one of the factors that govern the strength.     

Numerical simulation of particle breakage of angular particles using combined DEM and FEM

One of the effective parameters of the behavior of rockfill materials is particle breakage. As a result of particle breakage, both the stress–strain and deformability of materials change significantly. In this article, a novel approach for the two-dimensional numerical simulation of the phenomenon in rockfill (sharp-edge particles) has been developed using combined DEM and FEM. All particles are simulated by the discrete element method (DEM) as an assembly and after each step of DEM analysis, each particle is separately modeled by FEM to determine its possible breakage. If the particle fulfilled the proposed breakage criteria, the breakage path is assumed to be a straight line and is determined by a full finite element stress–strain analysis within that particle and two new particles are generated, replacing the original particle. These procedures are carried out on all particles in each time step of the DEM analysis. Novel approach for the numeric of breakage appears to produce reassuring physically consistent results that improve earlier made unnecessary simplistic assumptions about breakage. To evaluate the effect of particle breakage on rockfill's behavior, two test series with and without breakable particles have been simulated under a biaxial test with different confining pressures. Results indicate that particle breakage reduces the internal friction but increases the deformability of rockfill. Review of the v–p variation of the simulated samples shows that the specific volume has initially been reduced with the increase of mean pressures and then followed by an increase. Also, the increase of stress level reduces the growing length of the v–p path and it means that the dilation is reduced. Generally, any increase of confining stress decreases the internal friction angle of the assembly and the sample fail at higher values of axial stresses and promotes an increase in the deformability. The comparison between the simulations and the reported experimental data shows that the numerical simulation and experimental results are qualitatively in agreement. Overall the presented results show that the proposed model is capable with more accuracy to simulate the particle breakage in rockfill.     

Multi-scale simulation of needle-shaped particle breakage under uniaxial compaction

The breakage of needle-shaped particles within a random packed bed subjected to uni-directional compaction has been simulated using the discrete element method (DEM). Elongated particles with a chosen aspect ratio have been created by linking individual spherical discrete elements by rigid bonds, characterized by a given ultimate bending strength. A randomly packed bed of these elongated particles has been formed and gradually compressed between two infinite parallel solid planes. The particle size distribution as function of the compaction ratio has been studied in dependence on the individual particle strength, the initial particle length, and their distribution. The simulations have shown that the fragmentation generally follows the sequential halving kinetics and that the formation of fines is most profound in systems with a distribution of particle strengths, both within and between individual particles.     

Mechanical properties of talc-filled polypropylene. Influence of filler content,filler particle size and quality of dispersion

Mechanical properties of polypropylene-talc composites are measured as a function of talc concentration up to 40 wt.-%, Young's modulus of filled polypropylene shows linear increase with talc concentration up to double the value of unfilled polymer. Yield stress and Charpy notch toughness decrease with increasing talc content below matrix level at the highest filler content. Composite ultimate tensile elongation and tensile impact strength decrease sharply beginning at the lowest filler concentration. The influence of the talc particle size on the mechanical properties, especially composite toughness, mentioned above, is investigated. Four type of talc were used. Notch toughness decreases according to a linear dependence with mean size of talc particles. Evaluating impact strength possible content of agglomerates of filler and other additions is necessary to be included: tensile impact strength gives slow linear dependence with increasing content of filler particles and/or agglomerates above about 10 μm. The influence of talc particle size on the toughness of filled polypropylene becomes strong if the rubber particles are present.     

Attrition of porous glass particles in a fluidised bed

Fluidisation is frequently accompanied by unwanted attrition of the bed material. This paper focuses on the mechanical aspects of fines creation by attrition in fluidised beds supported by multi-orifice distributor plates. The attrition rates of low-density porous glass particles were measured; these particles show abrasive wear behaviour rather than breakage. Positron emission particle tracking (PEPT) was used to follow particle motion in three dimensions within the fluidised bed. For a single orifice distributor with background fluidisation, the attrition rate increased exponentially with increasing orifice gas velocity. For a multi-orifice distributor, however, attrition rates were roughly proportional to excess gas velocity, except near to a critical ratio of particle to orifice diameter; as this ratio approached 2, attrition was observed to increase by an order of magnitude. A method is proposed for estimating attrition rates from a combination of small-scale experimental results and theoretical calculations of distributor jet entrainment rates.     

DEM simulations of spherical particle–particle collisions

The randomness, diversity, and complexity of the high-speed particle crushing process bring great difficulties to the theoretical analysis of powder engineering. In this paper, the discrete element method is used to simulate the collision of spherical particles, which provides a reference for studying the process and mechanism of crushing between particles under impact load. The Hertz–Mindlin with bonded contact model is used as the particle–particle contact model. The central collisions of particles with different diameter ratios under different high-speed motions and the eccentric collisions with different eccentricities are discussed. The results show that the bond damage increases with the increase of relative velocity in both centre impact and eccentric impact. In centre collisions, particles of smaller objects are more fragmented than particles of larger objects. For smaller target particles, the larger the diameter ratio is, the more particle elements are detached from the target particles, and the greater the bond breakage rate. For larger target particles, the larger the diameter ratio is, the less the particle element falls off and the smaller the bond breakage rate. This provides guidance for the collision and crushing of particles with different particle size ratios and different eccentricities during high-speed motion in engineering applications in the future.