Men, gender stereotyping, and psychotherapy: Therapists' perceptions of male clients.

Male sex roles and gender stereotyping prescribe for men a way of being that is characterized by strength, self-containment, emotional control, and self-sufficiency. In this article, interviews with therapists are used to describe how aspects of traditional male socialization can negatively affect men's relationships and general sense of well-being. Suggestions for psychotherapeutic treatment with men are also made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Men, shame, and psychotherapy.

Discusses the capacity of shame to organize cognitive and behavioral responses in the formation of the male character. Psychotherapy often rekindles these early shame struggles, as shame plays a role in both structural and process issues of psychotherapy. How therapists can recognize and deal with shame-based defenses (e.g., silence and nondisclosure, intellectualization and distantiation) is addressed. Recognizing therapeutic battles as the male client's attempt to connect and honoring male aggression are suggested management strategies for therapy with men. Countertransference issues include competitive struggles and the fear of depletion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Men, loss, and psychotherapy.

Recent advances in the understanding of male identity development and masculine-specific gender role strain make it possible to conceptualize and design psychotherapy strategies especially suited for men. Emphasizing contributions from developmental psychology, self-psychology, and gender studies, the prominence of loss issues for men is discussed from both a developmental and a sociocultural perspective. Recommendations are made for incoporating this point of view into a new psychotherapy for men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The process of intimacy: similarity, understanding and gender

This study examined gender and three aspects of marital intimacy using a method to establish both objective and subjective indices of intimacy. Fifty couples answered the Personal Assessment of Intimate Relationships (Schaefer & Olson, 1981) twice: once as a self-report and once to respond as they predicted their spouses would answer. Couples who were less accurate in predicting each other's responses also diverged in their experience of intimacy and reported lower intimacy. Results suggest that high intimacy is based on both understanding and similarity of intimate experience. Women reported significantly higher levels of intimacy and were also better than men in predicting their partners' feelings. These findings suggest that women may be more attuned to intimacy or that definitions and assessment of intimacy are gender biased or both.     

Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender.

Assessed identity and intimacy in 40 male and 40 female university students, using a semistructured interview and a rating manual. Ss were also administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Results show that for males, identity was related to masculinity and intimacy was related to femininity. For females, identity was also related to masculinity; there were more high-intimacy females than males. While high identity/high intimacy was not contingent on androgyny (as hypothesized), proportionately more androgynous than nonandrogynous Ss were in this category. Results lend support to the hypothesis that it is desirable and beneficial for each sex to integrate aspects of the other gender's sex type. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations.

Reviews the book, The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations by Laurie A. Rudman and Peter Glick (see record 2008-09331-000). In this volume, respected gender experts Rudman and Glick (both former recipients of the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Award for their respective research in this area) highlight the ways in which male dominance and intimate interdependence work together to shape peoples’ attitudes toward men and women and thusly their interactions with members of both sexes. Although its publication in the Texts series suggests that it is aimed primarily at a student audience, this volume nevertheless has much to offer the interested layperson and the serious academic as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lesbians, bisexual women, and body image: an investigation of gender roles and social group affiliation

In our previous study, we demonstrated that chronic ethanol (EtOH) exposure down-regulated the cannabinoid receptors (CB1) in mouse brain synaptic plasma membrane (SPM) (Basavarajappa et al., Brain Res. 793 (1998) 212-218). In the present study, we investigated the effect of chronic EtOH (4-day inhalation) on the CB1 agonist stimulated guanosine-5'-O-(3-[35S]thio)-triphosphate ([35S]GTP gamma S) binding in SPM from mouse. Our results indicate that the net CP55,940 stimulated [35S]GTP gamma S binding was increased with increasing concentrations of CP55,940 and GDP. This net CP55,940 (1.5 microM) stimulated [35S]GTP gamma S binding was reduced significantly (-25%) in SPM from chronic EtOH group (175 +/- 5.25%, control; 150 +/- 8.14%, EtOH; P < 0.05). This effect occurs without any significant changes on basal [35S]GTP gamma S binding (152.1 +/- 10.7 for control, 147.4 +/- 5.0 fmol/mg protein for chronic EtOH group, P > 0.05). Non-linear regression analysis of net CP55,940 stimulated [35S]GTP gamma S binding in SPM showed that the Bmax of cannabinoid stimulated binding was significantly reduced in chronic EtOH exposed mouse (Bmax = 7.58 +/- 0.22 for control; 6.42 +/- 0.20 pmol/mg protein for EtOH group; P < 0.05) without any significant changes in the G-protein affinity (Kd = 2.68 +/- 0.24 for control; 3.42 +/- 0.31 nM for EtOH group; P > 0.05). The pharmacological specificity of CP55,940 stimulated [35S]GTP gamma S binding in SPM was examined with CB1 receptor antagonist, SR141716A and these studies indicated that CP55,940 stimulated [35S]GTP gamma S binding was blocked by SR141716A with a decrease (P < 0.05) in the IC50 values in the SPM from chronic EtOH group. These results suggest that the observed down-regulation of CB1 receptors by chronic EtOH has a profound effect on desensitization of cannabinoid-activated signal transduction and possible involvement of CB1 receptors in EtOH tolerance and dependence.     

Sex roles and psychotherapy: A current appraisal.

Reviews the current status of research on the effects of sex-role stereotypes on mental health judgments. Studies in this area have addressed (a) whether there are different sex-role-related standards of mental health for men and women, (b) if violations of sex role norms result in adverse mental health judgments, and (c) if therapists set sex-role-related goals for their clients. It is concluded that sex-role stereotypes are strong mental health cues for nonprofessionals, with violations of sex-role norms leading to adverse mental health judgments, but that while professionals share the sex-role stereotypes of their lay contemporaries, the professionals are unaffected by them in making mental health judgments and in setting therapeutic goals. This discrepancy between stereotypes and behavior may be due to any of 3 factors: the methodological limitations of the studies, actual differences in mental health between men and women, or normal attitude–behavior discrepancies. (2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of health knowledge: An investigation of age, gender, abilities, personality, and interests.

Ten areas of health knowledge were investigated in 2 studies, 1 of college students (N=169) and 1 of adults from the community (ages 19-70; N=176). Measures assessed knowledge of aging, orthopedic/ dermatological concerns, common illnesses, childhood/early life, serious illnesses, mental health, nutrition, reproduction, safety, and treatment of illness/disease. Significant gender differences favoring women were found for most areas of health knowledge, especially reproduction and early life. Results showed that cognitive ability accounted for the most variance in health knowledge with nonability (personality and interest traits) and demographic variables accounting for smaller but significant amounts of variance across most knowledge domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender-specific models of homosexual prejudice: Religiosity, authoritarianism, and gender roles.

Utilizing moderated hierarchical multiple regression analyses, the researchers examined the relative roles of right wing authoritarianism (RWA), religious fundamentalism (RF), general religiosity, sex, gender role traits, and self-discrepancy along gender role traits in predicting multiple dimensions of prejudice toward homosexuals. The goal was to identify gender-specific correlates of homosexual prejudice. Findings revealed that RWA exhibited a consistently positive relationship with prejudice, which along the Condemnation-Tolerance dimension of prejudice was stronger for men. Also, RF's and general religiosity's relationship with prejudice was consistently fully mediated by the presence of RWA. Gender roles were inconsistently correlated with dimensions of prejudice, and the interaction of masculine gender roles and perceived self-discrepancy from gender roles was only significant in predicting the Condemnation-Tolerance homosexual prejudice scale. Lastly, for females, general religiosity was a significant positive predictor for only the Condemnation-Tolerance and Neutral Contact Apprehension homosexual prejudice scales. Implications are reviewed related to authoritarianism as a universal correlate of homosexual prejudice, RF's and RWA's distinctiveness, perceived self-discrepancy from masculine gender roles as a male-specific correlate of homosexual prejudice, and general religiosity as a female-specific correlate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analytic psychology and gender role conflict: The development of the fragile masculine self.

There is a need to undertake a comprehensive approach to understanding gender specific challenges and solutions. This includes understanding the gender role related conflicts men experience. It also includes a reexamination of some of the long-held beliefs regarding men and masculinity including a gender identity socialized to conceptualize a sense of self that emphasizes independence to the exclusion of relational strivings. There is also the emphasis in male socialization to avoid the "feminine" in hopes that this will enhance the masculine identity. It is argued here that for many men, following this course of gender socialization has led to the development of a fragile masculine self. The fragile masculine self is conceptualized from an analytic psychology perspective, integrating aspects of intrapsychic development with psychosocial aspects of O'Neil's gender role conflict paradigm. Combining aspects of the intrapsychic with that of psychosocial forces leads to the development of a new model for conceptualizing and working with men in individual and group therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent structure of the alexithymia construct: A taxometric investigation.

Despite a wealth of research on the validity of alexithymia and its association with a number of common medical and psychiatric disorders, the fundamental question of whether alexithymia is best conceptualized as a dimensional or categorical construct remains unresolved. In the current investigation, taxometric analysis is used to examine the nature of the latent structure of alexithymia. Several nonredundant taxometric procedures were performed with item sets from the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (R. M. Bagby, J. D. A. Parker, & G. J. Taylor, 1994) as indicators. These procedures were applied separately in large community (n = 1,933) and undergraduate (n = 1,948) samples and in a smaller sample of psychiatric outpatients (n = 302). The results across various taxometric procedures and the different samples provide strong support that alexithymia is a dimensional construct. Some theoretical implications of these findings for research on the alexithymia construct are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of cohesiveness in marathon and conventional group psychotherapy.

Tested the validity of 2 hypotheses relating to cohesiveness in psychotherapy groups: (a) cohesiveness would show progressive improvement as a function of time spent in therapy, and (b) marathon groups would produce a greater degree of overall cohesiveness than more conventional groups. 3 experienced male therapists each conducted a 12-hr marathon and a 12-session short-term group with 5 male patients in each group. Results of audiotape ratings and analysis of questionnaires administered during the 1st, 4th, 8th, and 12th hr., and of postexperimental evaluations generally support both predictions. Participants in the marathons discussed topics which were more personal, and displayed greater interpersonal attraction, trust, and emotional sharing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of infant social referencing: Mothers' messages and gender differences.

Examined infant social referencing by observing how 37 12-mo-old infants sought and used maternal messages concerning the affective significance of novel objects during 4 conditions that varied the content (happiness or fear) and presentation mode (unconstrained or trained facial expression) of maternal messages. Findings indicated that mothers, when permitted, supplemented facial expressions with verbal messages that refer both directly and indirectly to the object. Even so, their messages of fear lacked clarity and intensity, especially when directed toward daughters. Infants were able social referencers who often sought and used maternal appraisals even after they had reacted to an object. Maternal messages regulated daughters' but not sons' distance from the objects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working with the masculine mystique: Male gender role conflict, counseling self-efficacy, and the training of male psychologists.

Psychologists must be prepared to serve increasingly diverse clients. However, research suggests that specific consequences of a traditional male socialization, collectively known as gender role conflict (GRC), interfere with trainees' developing appropriate therapeutic skills with certain populations. In an effort to address this, and to inform those involved in the training and supervision of male therapists, this article discusses (a) the theory of male GRC, (b) its relationship to the clinical performance of male psychologists, (c) links between that relationship and sense of self-efficacy as a therapist, and (d) specific suggestions for addressing GRC during the course of clinical training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On gender roles and perception of maladjustment.

Summarizes background and selected research evidence with regard to the question of different standards of male and female "mental health." Recent studies, specifically those on the effects of gender-role-incongruent behavior on the perception of maladjustment, are outlined. These studies support the classic study of I. Broverman et al (see record 1970-06951-001), in which a double standard of male vs female mental health was alleged—females judged as maladjusted or "sick" when they exhibit gender-incongruent behavior. The issue of whether the androgyny concept should serve as a model of mental health or adjustment is discussed. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Barriers to intimacy: An object relations prespective.

Intimacy has rarely been discussed in the psychoanalytic literature, although clinicians recognize that problems with intimacy are universal. In this article, intimacy is defined, and the sociocultural factors that serve as obstacles to intimate relatedness are discussed. Closely examined are the intrapsychic conflicts that inhibit the development of intimacy, such as a fear of fusion, a fear of object loss, paranoid-schizoid anxieties, and sexual anxieties. Because analysts help to create an environment where problems of intimacy can best be studied, understood, and treated, implications for psychoanalytic treatment are discussed. A clinical example from the author's psychoanalytic practice is offered to illustrate some of the concepts discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male therapists' clinical bias: Influence of client gender roles and therapist gender role conflict.

This study examined male therapists' gender role conflict, client sexual orientation, and client emotional expression as they interrelated with clinical judgments about male clients. Using a series of written clinical vignettes to manipulate the client variables of sexual orientation and emotional expression, 196 experienced male therapists completed a measure of male gender role conflict, read a clinical vignette varying the client's sexual orientation and emotional expression, and rated the client on several clinical dimensions. Canonical analysis revealed 2 roots indicating that therapist gender role conflict factors, in combination with client sexual orientation and emotional expression, were associated with therapists' ratings of the male client's prognosis and how much therapists liked, had empathy for, had comfort with, and had willingness to see the male client. Implications for counseling practice, limitations, and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change and stability in managers' gender roles.

The author examined gender roles among midlife managers over a 4-year period and the effects of career experiences. The findings supported a conceptualization of personality as relatively enduring but still open to change. Masculinity and femininity demonstrated differential stability and absolute stability, except in the case of women's femininity. Its magnitude decreased. At the same time, income change, promotion, and having a protégé were associated with increased masculinity and income change with increased femininity. A new child also meant increased masculinity for men. Furthermore, income change, promotion, turnover, being mentored, and having a protégé affected the relative placements of managers' scores over time. Many of the effects were different for men and women. The findings have important implications for adult development in the workplace. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)