Texture-taste interactions: Enhancement of taste intensity by structural modifications of the food matrix

The reduction of salt and sugar in food products remains a challenge due to the importance of those ingredients in providing a highly desired taste quality, enhancing flavor, determining the behavior of structuring ingredients, and ensuring microbiological safety. Several technologies have been used to reduce salt and sugar content in foods such as replacement of sugar by sweeteners, replacement of sodium salts by blends of other salts, taste enhancement by aromas and taste boosters or gradual reduction of sugar and salt in small steps over time. In this study we present two alternative approaches to enhance taste perception. First, the use of an inhomogeneous spatial distribution of sugar in food gels is introduced as a way to enhance sweetness perception [1]. The translation of the concept of taste contrast to bread applications is discussed which allows to reduce salt content in bread by 25% without loss of saltiness intensity and without addition of taste enhancers, aromas or salt replacers [2]. Secondly, it is demonstrated how the serum release under compression of mixed polysaccharide/protein gels can be engineered to enhance sweetness perception. An increase of serum release by 5x allowed to reduce sugar content of gels by 30% while maintaining sweet taste intensity [3]. The translation of this concept to low salt sausages is discussed. Sausages were engineered to exhibit enhanced juiciness which lead to a boost of saltiness allowing for up to 40% salt reduction [4]. These approaches can be used to further optimize the development of products with reduced salt and sugar content while maintaining taste intensity.     

Ham Particle Size Influences Saltiness Perception in Flans

One major issue of the food industry is reducing sodium content while maintaining food acceptability and liking. Despite extensive research in this field, little has been published on real complex food products. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the size of particles, a parameter easily adjusted in food processing, could influence the salty taste of low‐salt food product. We thus evaluated the effect of ham particle sizes (4 levels, including a zero level) on salt perception and the consumer liking of flans varying in their overall salt concentrations (low‐ and high‐salt content). Two consumer panels, composed of 107 and 77 subjects, rated, respectively, the saltiness of and liking for the developed flans (8 samples). The outcomes of this study indicated first, that the addition of ham to flans increased the salty taste perception and second, that a decrease in ham particle size (ground ham) increased the perceived saltiness. Moreover, low‐ and high‐salt flans were equally liked, demonstrating that food manufacturers could reduce the salt contents (here, by over 15%) while maintaining consumer acceptability through the manipulation of the size of the salt‐providing particles.     

Food and salt structure design for salt reducing

Salt plays an important role in food processing and consumption. High salt intake increases the health risks especially the cardiovascular diseases. The growing demand of the consumer towards healthier foods serves as a driving force for the research and development of salt-reduced food products both by the academia and the industry. Since salt addition has a fundamental effect on the processing characteristics, sensory quality and shelf life of foods, the achievement of salt reduction is a great challenge. This article introduces the principles of salt reduction in food products, particularly from the view point of modifying salt and food structure. The size, morphology, and spatial structure of salt crystals were introduced. The relationship between salt reduction and structural characteristics of food matrix in baked foods, emulsion-based products and cheese products was discussed. Non-cubic and agglomerated salt crystals with a smaller particle size result in a greater saltiness perception. Salt with a hollow structure improves its availability to taste receptors, leading to the same desired taste at a lower salt content. Salt reduction is achieved through the inhomogeneous spatial distribution of salt in the food matrix. The multilayer structure in bread enhanced the saltiness perception intensity. Double emulsions due to the dissolved salt in both of the internal and external phases enhanced sensory perception of saltiness compared to a single emulsion. A looser and more porous microstructure of the cheese matrix facilitates the release of salt while a higher gel strength limits the release of salt in cheese.     

Increasing Oil Concentration Affects Consumer Perception and Physical Properties of Mayonnaise‐type Spreads Containing KCl

Reducing sodium intakes remains a global challenge for the food industry. KCl is a potential salt substitute but imparts bitterness when used at high concentrations. Little is known about how oil concentrations (OC) affect consumers’ perception of saltiness and bitterness in emulsion products such as mayonnaise containing KCl. We evaluated consumers’ perception and physical properties of mayonnaise‐type spreads at various oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations. Consumers (N = 306) evaluated saltiness, bitterness, overall taste liking (OTL) and purchase intent (PI). Viscosity, pH, water activity, and consistency/texture were also measured. Oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations had significant effects on saltiness, viscosity, and pH. As OC increased, saltiness intensity slightly decreased for spreads. Increasing oil concentration increased viscosity. Generally, spreads containing KCl had higher bitterness and pH than spreads containing NaCl. All spreads containing KCl were penalized for being “too bitter.” PI was affected by OTL for all spreads but OC was also a significant factor in the purchase decision of spreads containing NaCl. This study demonstrated that increasing OC affected consumers’ taste perception (saltiness and bitterness) and spreads’ physical properties including pH and viscosity.     

(Not to be taken) with a grain of salt: Enhancing perceived saltiness by 3D-printed surface textures

Seeking to promote healthy food options through design, this study investigates whether food saltiness perception can be enhanced through the design of the surface texture of the container from which the product is sampled, using 3D-printing. An experimental study was conducted at a supermarket in which shoppers (N = 270) participated in a taste test. A full-factorial 3 (surface texture: smooth, rough, rough and irregular) × 3 (salt content: low, medium and high salt content) between-subject design was employed. Participants in each condition were asked to try the product and assess saltiness perception, taste intensity, taste liking and willingness to try. Results testify to the feasibility of enhancing saltiness impressions through both rough and irregular 3D-printed surface textures, but only for the medium-salt and high-salt variants. Findings on taste liking and willingness to try likewise testify to the importance of considering the interaction between surface texture and saltiness. These findings qualify previous research on cross-modal correspondences by showing that applications of surface textures may backfire when the gap between expectations triggered by tactile sensations and actual food contents becomes too large. Implications for initiatives aimed at promoting healthy food choices are discussed.     

干腌肉制品低盐加工技术及其减盐机制研究进展

干腌肉制品因其独特的风味而深受消费者的喜爱,但较高的含盐量制约了其进一步发展。随着人们对适度低盐饮食的关注,如何在保证产品品质和安全性的同时实现减盐的目的成为该领域的研究热点。本文在分析钠盐含量与干腌肉制品品质关系基础上,从钠盐替代物、真空/超高压/超声波/脉冲电场等新型腌制技术、增强咸味感知技术3 个方面综述当前的低盐加工策略及技术,并探讨不同减盐方法的减盐机制、咸味感知机理以及对产品品质特性的影响,指出现有研究和技术的局限性,以期为低盐干腌肉制品的研发提供一定的理论和技术参考。     

Fat and salt contents affect the in-mouth temporal sodium release and saltiness perception of chicken sausages

In cooked meats, sodium chloride is involved in taste, texture and flavour release. So a reduction in the salt content may have an impact on overall perception and acceptability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of composition on sodium release and saltiness intensity in chicken sausages. The rheological properties of the sausages differed according to composition. Temporal sodium release and temporal saltiness intensity were evaluated by four selected subjects when eating sausages. At each time point, the effect of the salt level in sausages on sodium release was positive and highly significant. The effect of lipids on sodium release was negative. Concerning perception, the amount of salt used had a positive effect on saltiness intensity, and lipids seemed to exert a masking effect. Generally, clear relationships between salt levels, sodium release and saltiness intensity were found but the masking effect of lipids on saltiness intensity probably also involved texture or fat perception mechanisms.     

On the Effect of Tastant Excluded Fillers on Sweetness and Saltiness of a Model Food

ABSTRACT: In this study, the effect on taste due to the addition of air bubbles to a water-based gel was investigated. The gel phase contained either sucrose to give a sweet taste or sodium chloride to give a salty taste. For the sweet gels, taste intensities were evaluated for samples with different volume fractions of the air bubbles (up to 40%, v/v) and different concentrations of the sucrose. For the salty gels, samples were evaluated at 40% volume fraction of air bubbles. It was found that a reduction of the sodium chloride or sucrose by the same weight percentage as the volume fraction of the air bubbles in the samples gave equal taste perception as the nontastant-reduced samples. Moreover, saltiness and sweetness perception were clearly enhanced at 40% volume fractions of air bubbles if the sodium chloride or sucrose was not reduced. Thus, the overall tastes of the samples appeared to depend mainly on the concentration levels of the salt or the sucrose in the aqueous phase irrespective of the volume fraction of the air bubbles. However, the air bubbles were found to change the texture and appearance of the samples. It has been demonstrated that the inclusion of air bubbles offers scope for the reduction of sodium chloride or sucrose in food products.     

A salt substitute with low sodium content from plant aqueous extracts

The perception of the salty taste, obtained in humans by using sodium chloride (NaCl), is one of the most important attributes of the human sensory system. However, extra intake of sodium present in salt might lead to conditions such as hypertension. To develop a salt substitute with low sodium content, 13 plants were extracted with water, and their sensory perception was analyzed. After the sensory evaluation, 3 plant aqueous extracts (PAEs), representing salty and umami tastes, were selected using principal component analysis (PCA). They were powdered using a spray dryer, mixed, and subsequently referred to as plant salt substitute (PSS). The relative saltiness of PSS to NaCl was shown to be 0.65. When the degree of saltiness between PSS and NaCl is the same, PSS contains 43% less sodium than NaCl. Therefore, PSS can be used in food to reduce an individual's sodium intake while retaining the salty taste of NaCl.     

Effect of Food Matrix on Saltiness Perception—Implications for Sodium Reduction

Enhancing sodium release from the food matrix, thus increasing saltiness perception, is a promising strategy to reduce the amount of salt needed in foods. However, the complex nature of the effect of the food matrix on saltiness perception makes it difficult to control saltiness perception when designing food products. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the food matrix effects on saltiness perception of sodium chloride. The effects are discussed in the order of 3 stages in saltiness perception: release of sodium from food matrix into oral cavity (1st stage), delivery of sodium within oral cavity (2nd stage), and detection of sodium by the taste receptor cells (TRCs) (3rd stage). In the 1st stage, the food matrix affects the initial availability of sodium to be released, and also affects the spontaneous and facilitated migration of sodium from the matrix into the oral cavity. In the 2nd stage, the food matrix affects the availability of sodium and the mixing efficiency of sodium with saliva. The relationship between food matrix and oral processing of food that may affect the sodium release (1st stage) and the delivery (2nd stage) is also discussed. In the 3rd stage, the food matrix affects the physical availability of sodium for the TRCs, the physiological activity of TRCs, and the central activities involved in the perception process. Based on the understanding of complex nature of the matrix effects on saltiness perception discussed in this review, the properties of food matrix may be controlled effectively to enhance saltiness perception and achieve sodium reduction.     

Odour–taste interactions: A way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions

This study investigated odour–saltiness interactions in aqueous solutions. In a first experiment, 81 consumers indicated expected taste attributes for 86 labels of flavour related to common food items. Panellists were able to rate expected saltiness of food flavour evoked by food written items. Differences in expected saltiness were observed in relation to actual salt content of food. In experiment 2, we selected commercially available aromas corresponding to 14 of the salt-associated flavour labels found in experiment 1. Odour-induced saltiness enhancement was investigated for odours evoked by these aroma water solutions containing or not sodium chloride. Fifty-nine consumers rated odour and taste (bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and sweetness) intensity orthonasally and retronasally. Results showed that expected flavours could induce saltiness and enhance saltiness in solutions containing a low level of sodium chloride through odour-induced changes in taste perception. These results suggest that well selected odours could be used to compensate sodium chloride reduction in food.     

Understanding of the influence of composition,structure and texture on salty perception in model dairy products

The aim of this study was to better understand salt release and perception in model dairy products, having different composition, structure and/or texture. Sensory and instrumental methods were used to quantify and relate texture to salt mobility and perception. A high dry matter content (protein and fat jamming) and a gel structure with a protein network formation induced a decrease of diffusion coefficient of salt in matrices. Moreover, salty perception was higher for non-renneted products than for gelled ones. For gels, saltiness was enhanced in fat products. These results were discussed in regards with textural and physico-chemical food properties: the structural parameter tan δ was the most correlated with salty perception highlighting the impact of product structure on saltiness. Results also demonstrated that physiology and complex events (mastication, dilution and mixing with saliva, dynamic of bolus formation) occurring during food consumption must be considered to go further in understanding.     

Sensory lexicon and relationships among brown colour,saltiness perception and sensory liking evaluated by regular users and culinary chefs: a case of soy sauces

This study was performed to develop lexicon to describe soy sauces using regular users (consumers) vs. culinary chefs, to perform product grouping using a free-sorting task and to determine relationship among physicochemical properties (colour, %NaCl) and consumer perception of soy sauces. Both panels identified eighteen terms to describe soy sauces, of which eleven terms (light, medium and dark brown colour, weak, medium and strong saltiness, sweetness, saltiness–sweetness, tasty/umami, and soy sauce and fermented aroma) were similar. For culinary chefs, three distinctive soy sauce groups based on brown colour (light, medium and dark brown) were identified, while two groups (light and medium dark brown) for regular users. From free-sorting maps, both panels associated brown colour intensity with saltiness expectation/perception. From PCA biplots, both panels shared some similarities for sensory liking (colour, saltiness, flavour, overall liking) for soy sauces. This study suggested that brown colour intensities affected saltiness expectation/perception and were used for product grouping for soy sauces.     

酵母抽提物减盐功能及在高汤调味粉中应用研究

本文以几款酵母抽提物（YE）为主要原料,探究其减盐功能及在高汤调味粉中减盐应用效果。通过开展不同YE理化指标检测、咸味强度对比感官分析,确定减盐效果最佳YE;然后对其肽分子量分布检测,不同肽段在复配减盐模型溶液应用,探究减盐机制;最后在高汤粉调味料验证减盐效果。结果表明,不同酵母抽提物减盐效果以及对低钠盐的风味修饰作用存在差异,其中浓厚YE-2在模型实验中减盐20%效果强于其他几款测试YE;浓厚YE-2中1000~2000 Da肽段的成分明显具有浓厚感和咸味提升效果;将浓厚YE-2应用在高汤粉调味料中具有协助减盐、增强鲜味和浓厚味、提升整体协调感的作用。提升YE-2产品中1000~2000 Da肽段的含量,可以开发具有更强减盐效果的YE产品。     

Effects of colorant concentration and ‘natural colour’ or ‘sodium content’ claim on saltiness perception,consumer liking and emotion,and purchase intent of dipping sauces

Natural colorant (no colorant, NC = 0%; moderate colorant, MC = 1.2%; high colorant, HC = 3.6% w/w) and salt (regular salt, RS = NaCl; reduced sodium, ReS = KCl; no salt, NS) were added in mayonnaise‐based dipping sauces to evaluate effects of colorant concentration and ‘natural colorant’ or ‘sodium content’ claim on saltiness expectation, consumer liking and emotion, and purchase intent (PI) of these products. Regardless of the salt type and content, increasing colorant concentration decreased colour liking scores while saltiness expectation tentatively increased as indicated by higher % of ‘too much’ responses for saltiness on a JAR (Just‐About‐Right) scale. At a given salt type and content, liking scores of salty taste decreased with increasing colorant concentration, both before and after the ‘sodium content’ claim was given to consumers. Emotion scores elicited by consuming dipping sauces were affected by colorant concentration. Positive emotions (good, interested, satisfied) decreased while negative emotions (guilty, unsafe, worried) increased with increasing colorant concentration. Statements of ‘natural colorant’ and ‘sodium content’ claim had minimal effects on elicited emotions and PI.     

调味品减盐增鲜的研究进展

调味品是食品调味过程中的必需品,同时也是人体摄入盐分的主要来源。盐摄入过多会带来健康隐患,但减盐会降低食品的咸味和鲜味,从而降低食品品质。本文综述在减盐同时保证咸味、鲜味及其协调性的技术手段。减盐技术包含减少钠盐添加量、非钠盐替代物及增强咸味感知等方法,增鲜技术包含添加酵母抽提物、鲜味肽及鲜味氨基酸和肽的衍生物等方法。此外,乳酸菌、美拉德反应中间体、增味剂、呈味肽等的应用亦可达到减盐增鲜的双重效果。减盐增鲜技术的应用能够促进调味品行业的发展,但这些技术尚存在基础研究不足、实际应用较少、应用范围较窄、生产成本高等问题,解决这些问题是当前所面临的主要困难。本文详细阐述调味品减盐增鲜技术的基本原理、特点、目前研究存在的不足等,提出未来可能的发展方向,以期为调味品的减盐增鲜研究提供参考。     

Cross-modal interactions between taste and smell: Odour-induced saltiness enhancement depends on salt level

In recent years, health concerns related to salt have led to extensive research on low-salt foods. One major remaining issue is to reduce sodium content while still providing the salty fix, to maintain food appreciation, acceptance and choice. Using well-selected odours has been proposed to compensate for sodium chloride reduction in food, due to the cross-modal interactions between odour and taste. However, interactions between taste and odour, with regards to saltiness, remain poorly investigated. Moreover, although a few studies have assessed the influences of odour and sweet supra-threshold intensity on cross-modal interactions, none focused directly on how they influence saltiness. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to determine if the level of saltiness, i.e., the concentration of sodium chloride in aqueous solutions, influences odour-induced saltiness enhancement (OISE). A panel of 64 untrained panellists evaluated the saltiness of water solutions including salt and a tasteless odorant. Following a full factorial design, three concentrations of salt were used in conjunction with three aroma conditions. The results confirmed that OISE depends on odour-taste congruency but also clearly indicated that OISE depends on salt concentration (salty intensity): the saltiness of a low- or medium-salt-content solution increased significantly when subjects perceived simultaneously the congruent sardine aroma, but OISE was no more significant with high-saltiness solutions. This effect has to be taken into account when using OISE as a compensation strategy in low-salt food.