Perceived physical risk and risk-reducing strategies in the consumption of raw vegetable salads in restaurants

The importance of eating away from home has revealed the need to understand consumer perception with respect to the physical risks in this context. When a consumer perceives risks, he/she uses different strategies to minimize them. This study aimed to identify consumer perception concerning the physical risks of consuming raw vegetable salads in full-service restaurants, as also the frequency of using physical risk-reducing strategies, examining the influence of socio-demographic variables and social desirability. The survey instrument consisted of 5 items to measure risk perception, 17 items regarding the risk-reducing strategies, socio-demographic questions and the social desirability scale. A total of 359 consumers were interviewed in the city of Campinas, Brazil. An exploratory factor analysis was carried out to group the risk-reducing strategies using the software PASW Statistics, 18.0. A moderate level of physical risk (mean ± standard deviation = 24.2 ± 13.2, on a response scale that could vary between 1 and 49) was perceived by consumers. Three physical risk-reducing strategies presented significant positive correlation (p < 0.05) with social desirability, and were excluded from the other statistical analyses. The fourteen physical risk-reducing strategies were categorized in four factors: “restaurant quality and previous bad experience”, “information from the waiter, the media, and the price”, “workers and restaurant smell” and “word of mouth and full, already known restaurant”. “Restaurant quality and previous bad experience” was the factor significantly (p < 0.05) more used by the consumers in the reduction of physical risks, whereas “information from the waiter, the media, and the price” was the least used. Differences (p < 0.05) in the frequencies of using the strategies contained in the factors were identified with respect to the socio-demographic variables. Those individuals who perceived a greater level of physical risk in the context surveyed used all the factors related to the strategies with greater frequency, to reduce the risk. The results could provide important information for public and private programs.     

Adverse health effects arising from chemicals found in food and drink reported to the national poisons information centre (London), 1998–2003

Reports of chemical contamination of food and drink have been dominated by large-scale incidents often associated with the risks of chronic exposure to particular chemicals or additives, e.g., mycotoxins and pesticide residues. This paper is the first serious attempt to collate information on the numerous incidents of acute chemical contamination associated with food and drink. Data is provided on 3740 incidents reported to the National Poisons Information Service (London) as part of a Food Standards Agency investigation into Breakdowns in Food Safety.Poor consumer handling and an apparent lack of understanding of and/or poor instructions led to many of these events. No serious effects occurred from accidental exposures, yet there is a significant health burden from these accidents.     

Consumers' behaviors and concerns on fresh vegetable purchase and safety in Beijing urban areas,China

Many studies have measured the perceptions of consumers on different aspects of food safety but only a limited number of studies focused on consumer's perception of vegetable safety risks in developing countries. This study aimed to investigate consumers' behaviors and concerns on vegetable purchase and safety in Beijing urban areas. It identified the factors influencing consumers' behaviors on vegetable purchase, safety and information channel with different demographic groups of consumers. A total 590 of valid questionnaires were collected in this study in January, 2015. The participants of 352 female and 238 male were consumers shopping at the supermarkets in Beijing urban areas. Results indicated that consumers intended to choose their trusted purchasing places to purchase vegetables, and their perceptions of “freshness” (m = 4.61, sd. = 0.78) and “pesticide residues” (m = 4.57, sd. = 0.95) were the top concerns. Female and senior consumers were more concerned about vegetable safety. Consumers who purchase vegetables frequently were more likely to pay attention to food safety and quality than the ones who have never brought vegetables. Consumers used different information channels to get vegetable knowledge. Most consumers used traditional information channels such as TV and broadcasting, while young and well-educated consumers relied more on internet. The findings suggested that some safety control measures need to be taken through the vegetable supply chain to reduce the hazards and ensure vegetable safety, which would help to establish or rebuild consumers' trusts on vegetable safety.     

Consumer purchase habits and views on food safety: A Brazilian study

This study aimed to evaluate the attitudes towards food safety among consumers in the city of São Paulo, the major consumer market in Brazil. Focus group sessions were conducted with 30 adults responsible for food choices and purchases. Results indicated a preference for supermarkets over street markets, for the variety of foods, convenience and confidence in the safety assurance. On the other hand, the “naturalness” of the products in the street markets was the main reason for purchases in those places. Participants showed concerns with respect to food additives, hormones and pesticides – technological rather than “natural” hazards. Minimally processed and ready-to-eat foods were considered convenient products meeting the need for time/labor-savings in the kitchen, although suspicion about wholesomeness and safety came up among consumers. Lack of awareness regarding potentially risky behaviors was observed, including handling and storage of foods in the domestic environment. In conclusion, this study suggests that Brazilian regulators should create more effective risk communication combining technical information with actual consumer perceptions of food risks.     

Evaluation of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from the region of south-eastern Poland

According to the World Health Organization, consumption of fruit and vegetables in Europe constituted over 30% of consumer diet. Fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins, minerals, fibre, and antioxidants. Besides their nutrient value, these products can be a source of toxic substances i.e. pesticide residues. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of pesticide residues in Polish fruits and vegetables and to assess if these residues pose a risk to the health of the consumer. Furthermore, compliance with legal regulations concerning the use of plant protection products in crop cultivation was ascertained.In 2010–2012, 1026 unprocessed samples of fruits and vegetables were analysed. Pesticide residues were found in 376 samples (36.6% of tested samples). In 18 samples (1.8%), residues exceeded Maximum Residue Limits. In 28 (2.7%) samples, substances not recommended for a given crop were detected.The highest values of long-term exposure were found for dimethoate residue in apples (1.7% ADI, adults; 6.8% ADI, children). For most detected pesticides, long-term exposures were below the values of 1% ADI for adults and 3% ADI for children.The highest values of short-term exposure were obtained in the case of consumption of apples with azoxystrobin (4.5% ARfD, adults; 13.3% ARfD, children).     

Evaluation of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from Xiamen,China

In the present study an effort has been made to evaluate the residues of selected insecticides (organophosphorous and pyrethroid) and fungicides (triazoles and chloronitriles) in fruits and vegetables collected from Xiamen, China, during the October 2006 to March 2009 monitoring campaign. Gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD) was used to determine the concentrations of 22 pesticide residues among those recommended for pest treatment. Of 1135 samples (37.7%) that contained pesticide residues, pakchoi cabbage, legumes, and leaf mustard were the commodities in which pesticide residues were most frequently detected, with 17.2%, 18.9% and 17.2% of the samples exceeding the maximum residue limits (MRLs), respectively. Concerning the most frequently detected pesticide residues, cypermethrin was found in 18.7% of the samples analyzed. Data obtained were then used for estimating the potential health risks associated with the exposures to these pesticides. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) range from 0.1% of the ADI for cyfluthrin to 2.61% of the ADI for omethoate and 0.1% of the ADI for omethoate. The most critical commodity is legumes, contributing 2.61% to the hazard index (HI). The results show that despite a high occurrence of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from this region, it could not be considered a serious public health problem. Nevertheless, an investigation into continuous monitoring and tighter regulation of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables is recommended.     

Pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from South America – A Nordic project

The aim of this study was to investigate the amount of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from South America. A total of 724 samples of 46 different fruits and vegetables from eight South American countries were collected in 2007. In 19% of the samples no residues were found, 72% of samples contained pesticide residues at or below MRL, and 8.4% of samples contained pesticide residues above MRL. Thiabendazole, imazalil and chlorpyrifos were the pesticide most frequently found. Thirty-seven pesticides were found with frequencies higher that 1% in the samples. The results emphasize the need for continuous monitoring of pesticide residues, especially in imported fruits and vegetables.     

Evaluation of nine pesticide residues in three minor tropical fruits from southern China

The residue levels of nine pesticides (imidacloprid, acetamiprid, carbendazim, diflubenzuron, chlorbenzuron, phoxim, pyrimethanil, abamectin and iprodione) in 117 samples of three minor tropical fruits (starfruits, wax apples and Indian jujubes) from Hainan, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi provinces in China were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) after multi-residue extraction procedures. A total of 78 (66.7%) samples were positive, with residues above the limit of quantification. Indian jujube was the fruit with the highest percentage of positive samples (81.6%), followed by starfruit (61.0%) and finally wax apple (57.9%). Carbendazim was the most frequently detected residue found in 51 (43.6%) samples in the concentration ranges of 34.0–443.8 μg/kg. Diflubenzuron, phoxim, pyrimethanil and abamectin were not detected in any sample. Twenty-nine (24.8%) samples were contaminated with multiple pesticide residues, and the simultaneous occurrence of three different residues was found in one wax apple and two starfruit samples. Estimation of the potential health risks associated with the exposure to the analyzed pesticides was carried out and the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) were very low, ranging from 0.020% of the acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) for chlorbenzuron to 1.13% for carbendazim. These results indicate that despite a high occurrence of pesticides in starfruit, wax apple and Indian jujube, the contamination levels do not contribute significantly to pesticide intakes and are unlikely to have public health effects. Nevertheless, measures should be taken to hasten the registration of pesticides for use on minor fruit crops. The findings also indicate that routine monitoring of pesticide residues in minor fruits is necessary to prevent, control and reduce pesticide contamination and to minimize health risks.     

Practical and valid guidelines for realistic estimation of measurement uncertainty in multi-residue analysis of pesticides

To assist the understanding and adoption of measurement uncertainty principles in chemical tests, during the last decade, a number of specific guidelines have been published by EURACHEM/CITAC, EUROLAB, NORDTEST and others international bodies. All these guidelines agree that, in certain cases, the nature of the test method may preclude rigorous, metrologically and statistically valid, calculation of uncertainty of measurement, multi-residue analysis of pesticides being, without any doubt, one of these cases. In 2006, the Codex Alimentarius Commission established its guidelines on estimation of uncertainty of results for the determination of pesticide residues, which only include “empirical, practical or top-down” approaches based on whole-method performance investigations or scientific judgments from previous experience. The aim of this publication is to make a simple and comparative critical review of the most relevant international guidelines published on measurement uncertainty in both chemical analysis and pesticide residues analysis, extracting from them those proposals and practical conclusions that can be applied in a pesticide residue laboratory with full warranty and validity.     

Food quality and safety––consumer perception and public health concern

Food safety has become an important food quality attribute within the last decade. In 2002, we conducted a consumer survey with 449 subjects in Kiel to determine actual consumer perceptions to food quality and safety. We compared these data with our former consumer surveys in Kiel. Over the past decade food quality is perceived to have improved. Regarding to food related health risks, the feeling of uncertainty appears to have decreased. With respect to the willingness to pay for food safety, two segments of consumers emerged, i.e. price-sensitive and safety-sensitive consumers. Food manufacturers have gained credibility from 1997 to 2002 although still on a low level. They should communicate actively their food safety initiatives as part of their ethical and social responsibility.     

Food-related hazards in China: Consumers' perceptions of risk and trust in information sources

This paper identifies segments of Chinese consumers based on their perception of personal risk, how worried they are and their subjective knowledge about seven possible food-related hazards: additives, residues, counterfeit, inferior, genetically modified, deteriorated and nutritionally imbalanced food. Data were collected through a consumer survey conducted in Beijing (534 participants) and in Baoding (437 participants). Three clusters were identified: worried and knowledgeable consumers (60.1%), worried and ignorant consumers (21.7%) and moderately worried consumers (18.2%). The first two groups reported a high level of worry and high perception of personal risk about food-related hazards in China. The two hazards they were most worried about were counterfeit food and inferior quality food. Television, internet and personal communication were the three information channels most frequently used by participants to obtain information about food safety. Worried and ignorant consumers reported less frequent use of magazines, books and brochures compared with other consumers. Medical doctors, personal experience and research institutes were the three most trusted information sources for the first two groups of consumers. Moderately worried consumers only placed high levels of trust in medical doctors and themselves. Consumers' perceptions about the knowledge, honesty and concern of different information sources significantly and positively affected their trust in those sources. The study concludes by making recommendations as to how to improve communications with the different identified consumer segments and identifies future research required to expand its validity.     

Results from the Danish monitoring programme for pesticide residues from the period 2004–2011

The Danish pesticide residue monitoring programme evaluates compliance with the maximum residue levels established by the EU and monitors the residue levels in foods to enable an evaluation of the exposure of the Danish population to pesticides. The latter part of the programme included 25 different fruits, vegetables and cereals and processed foods. The commodities were chosen based on their contribution to the intake of pesticides in the Danish population. A total of 17,309 samples were collected during 2004–2011. The monitoring showed that the frequencies of pesticides were higher in samples of foreign origin than in samples of Danish origin both for samples with residues above or below the MRLs. Overall, pesticide residues were more frequently found in fruits and vegetables than the other groups of commodities; fruits had higher frequencies than vegetables. Residues above the MRLs were found in 2.6% of the samples. In plant commodities, 163 different substances were found in measurable concentrations. Residues of more than one pesticide (multiple residues) were found in 27% of all samples. A comparison of the frequencies of pesticide residues in commodities from different countries showed that Danish commodities with a lower frequency of pesticides.     

Pesticide residues in Brassica vegetables and exposure assessment of consumers

The presence of pesticide residues in Brassica vegetables (365 samples) produced in north-eastern Poland (2006-2009) was determined and their health risks assessed. The analytical procedure was developed to examine of 130 pesticides of different chemical classes (chloroorganic, phosphoroorganic, carbamates, strobilurines, neonicotinoids, amides, pyrimidines, benzimidazoles, imidazoles and triazoles) in broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, head and Chinese cabbage. Pesticides were extracted using matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) with dual detection system: electron capture (ECD) and nitrogen-phosphorus (NPD). Linearity (R² ≥ 0.997) was good over the concentration range from 2.5 to 0.001 mg/kg for all the pesticides, and instrumental detection limits ranged from 0.001 to 0.01 mg/kg. Mean recoveries for vegetables spiked at three fortification levels (0.001-2.5 mg/kg) ranged from 70.07 to 118.90%. Relative standard deviations ranged from 0.15 to 8.58%, except: dicofol, pyridaben (acaricides), dichloran (fungicide), isofenphos, triasophos (insecticides) where mean recoveries were above 120% (122.2-127%) and also dichlofluanid, tecnazene (fungicides), dichlobenil (herbicide), endosulfan-sulfate, phorate, phosmet (insecticides) with mean recoveries below 70% (42.83-69.1%). The method used to monitor pesticide residues in vegetables. Fifteen different pesticides (insecticides mainly) were detected in 118 samples (32%), while multiple pesticides (more than one pesticide residue) in about 4% samples. Chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin were the most commonly detected pesticides. Chlorpyrifos was present in 27.4% items and ranged from 0.005 to 1.51 mg/kg, while cypermethrin were detected in 3.3% samples and ranged from 0.02 to 0.19 mg/kg. Thirty-three (9%) samples exceeded the maximum residue levels (MRLs). The dietary intake of residues of some pesticides can pose acute hazards. Data obtained were then used for estimating the potential health risks associated with the exposures to these pesticides. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) ranged from 0.005% of the ADI (acceptable daily intake) for fenhexamid to 4.454% of the ADI for diazinon. Combine cumulative exposure for chlorpyrifos detected on Brassica were 0.777% of ADI. The results show that occurrence of pesticide residues in Brassica vegetables from this region could not be considered a serious public health problem. Nevertheless, an investigation into continuous monitoring and tighter regulation of pesticide residues in vegetables is recommended.     

Mixture-risk-assessment of pesticide residues in retail polyfloral honey

The presence of even tiny quantities of pesticide residues in honey, a traditional healthy product, is a matter of concern for producers, packers and consumers. This paper aims to quantify pesticides in retail brands of polyfloral honey, and to calculate the mixture risk assessment of honey for consumers according to the results obtained from the analysed samples. A LC-MS/MS multi-residue method was developed and validated for 13 compounds: 11 pesticides (chlorfenvinphos, coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate, amitraz, which are very common in veterinary treatments, and imidacloprid, acetamiprid, simazine, cyproconazole, tebuconazole, chlorpiryphos-methyl, chlorpiryphos, widely used in agricultural practices), and 2 metabolites of amitraz (2,4-DMA and 2,4-DMF). Results showed that the samples contained pesticide residues at different concentrations; however, the MRL in honey for each of the 11 pesticides was never exceeded. The most common were amitraz (from 1 to 50 μg/kg) present in 100% of the samples, and coumaphos (up to 14 μg/kg) in 63%. The hazard index (HI) for adults was less than 0.002 in all cases, a long way from 1, the value established as the limit of acceptability. Therefore, commercial honey does not represent any significant risk to health. However, considering that residue levels should be present “as low as reasonably achievable” it is deemed necessary to make an effort to reduce their presence by appropriate agricultural and, above all, beekeeping practices due to acaridae treatments.     

Residue behavior and processing factors of eight pesticides during the production of sorghum distilled spirits

Residue behavior and processing factors (PFs) of phorate, atrazine, malathion, metolachlor, chlorpyrifos, procymidone, tebuconazole and bifenthrin during distilled spirits production based on sorghum was systemically evaluated. The pesticides were determined by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) after each processing step including soaking, steaming, fermentation, and distillation. Results showed that soaking process could significantly reduce phorate residues whereas it was not confirmed for other pesticides. The steaming process further reduced pesticide residues by 22%～81%. The fermentation reduced pesticide residues by 43%～76%. Finally the distillation proved the most effective process for reducing pesticide residues. The PFs for every pesticide after each step were less than 1 and the PFs of the overall process for all pesticides were lower than 0.004, which indicated that the distilled spirits making process could obviously reduce the pesticide residues that are present in raw sorghum.     

How dietary risk assessment can guide risk management and food monitoring programmes: The approach and results of the French Observatory on Pesticide Residues (ANSES/ORP)

The French system for monitoring dietary exposure to pesticide residues and its scoring method are presented. This system aims both to assess acute and chronic risks to the general population and to identify food commodities and pesticides that need to be better monitored and/or regulated thanks to 6 priority levels. The method combines four chronic and acute dietary risk indicators based on the results of the most recent national monitoring programmes and maximum residue levels, in connection with individual and national food consumption data. The probability of exceeding the toxicological reference values was estimated for children and adults, for 522 pesticides and their metabolites. Food contributors were detailed and a minimum number of samples to be taken per food was proposed. The majority of the pesticides (87%) was scored at the lowest priority level 1. For pesticides classified in levels 2 to 5, there is a need to refine the assessment. The monitoring should also be extended to include newly authorised substances in levels 2 to 4. Carbendazim, dimethoate, dithiocarbamates and imazalil merit particular attention as they scored at level 6 and are frequently quantified in fruits and vegetables, meaning that risk managers should take corrective measures in order to ensure consumer safety.     

Chlorpyrifos residue levels on field crops (rice,maize and soybean) in China and their dietary risks to consumers

In this study, chlorpyrifos residue levels in field crops of rice, maize and soybean were investigated according to the “Guideline on Pesticide Residue Trials” of China. On the basis of the residual results, human dietary risks were further evaluated. Chlorpyrifos residues of harvest grains were firstly prepared by QuEChERS method and analyzed using Gas Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS/MS). Dietary risks were assessed by a deterministic approach. The median residues in field trials of rice, maize and soybean were 0.617, 0.0227 and 0.0136 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. The highest residues in field trials of rice, maize and soybean were 3.23, 0.114 and 0.102 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. Chronic intake assessment indicated that only 39.0% of acceptable daily intake (ADI, 0–0.01 mg kg bw⁻¹ day⁻¹) was consumed through rice, maize and soybean. The acute hazard indexes (aHI) of adults was 26.1% of acute reference dose (ARfD, 0–0.1 mg kg bw⁻¹) and aHI of children was 63.5% of ARfD in dietary exposure assessment through rice, maize and soybean consumption. Single pathway risk assessment indicated that chlorpyrifos application on field crops in manner of the good agricultural practices didn't pose public health risks.     

Screening of fresh fruit and vegetables for pesticide residues on Croatian market

The aim of this study was to investigate pesticide residues in market foods in Croatia. A total of 240 samples of fresh fruit and vegetables from import and domestic production were analyzed. Pesticide resides were determined by gas chromatography with mass selective detector (GC–MSD). Sample extract was cleaned up using gel permeation chromatography (GPC). In 66.7% of the samples no residues were found, 25.8% of samples contained pesticide residues at or below MRL, and 7.5% of samples contained pesticide residues above MRL. Most frequently found pesticides were imazalil (found in 35 samples) and chlorpyrifos (found in 24 samples). The findings of this study pointed to the following recommendations: the need for a monitoring program for pesticide residues in food crops, especially imported food crops.     

Effect of household and industrial processing on levels of five pesticide residues and two degradation products in spinach

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) was sprayed with four fungicides (boscalid, mancozeb, iprodione and propamocarb) and one insecticide (deltamethrin) to quantify the effect of household and industrial processing on the pesticide residues. To ensure sufficiently high levels of residues, the most concentrated formulations were applied pursuant to Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs). The subsequent processing conditions were established in accordance with industrial practice corresponding as closely as possible to the actual conditions that are normally used in practice. The effects of household and industrial processing on the levels of the five pesticide residues and the two degradation products were quantified. Washing with tap water reduced residues by 10-50%. The blanching step allowed decreasing the concentration of residues for the 5 pesticides by 10-70%. It is the most effective step to remove pesticide residues from spinach. The presence of heat in combination with a large quantity of water enhanced the elimination of residues. Microwave cooking hardly reduced residues (up to 39%) whereas in-pack sterilization resulted in a decrease of pesticide residues up to 99%. The cumulative loss in concentration varied between 50 and 95% for the pesticide residues, except for deltamethrin. Degradation products were also investigated in this study. Sterilization produced the most degradation products (namely 3,5-dichloroaniline from iprodione and ethylenethiourea from mancozeb). That can be attributed to heat-induced hydrolysis of mancozeb and iprodione, respectively. Most of the processing factors could be explained in terms of water solubility, the log-octanol-water-partitioning coefficients and the systemic properties of the studied pesticides.     

Pesticide residues and microbiological quality of bottled wines

In the study we determined the pesticide residues and microbiological quality of bottled wines. Pesticide residues in wine were analysed using the multiresidual method with GC–MS, the multiresidual method with LC–MS–MS and the method for determination of dithiocarbamate residues with GC–MS. Furthermore, the effect of bentonite and the combined fining agent on the concentration of boscalid in wine was tested. The microbiological analysis was performed using membrane filtration. Nine pesticide residues were determined in the samples. More than 50% of wines belonged to the category of wines with only up to two pesticide residues. The most frequently determined pesticide in wines was boscalid (76% of samples) followed by fenhexamid (44%). The highest concentrations of pesticide residues in wines were determined for cyprodinil (0.44 mg/L) and fludioxonil (0.21 mg/L). The combined fining agent was more efficient in lowering the concentration of boscalid in wine if compared with bentonite. The results of microbiological quality indicate that no less than one quarter of bottled wines on our store shelves is microbiologically unstable.