Prediction of long-term chloride diffusion in silica fume concrete in a marine environment

Chloride-induced corrosion is the main factor in determining the durability and service life of the reinforced concrete structures exposed to marine environments. Recognition of chloride diffusion phenomenon in concrete and developing a prediction model that can estimate the service life of the concrete structures subject to long-term exposure is vital for aggressive marine environments. The present study focuses on developing such a prediction model of chloride diffusion coefficient for silica fume concrete under long-term exposure to a durability site located in the southern region of Iran. All investigations are based on 16 concrete mix designs containing silica fume with variable water-to-binder ratios exposed to sea water for maximum period of 60 months. This empirical model is developed by applying regression analysis based on Fick’s second law on the experimental results and is compared with previous studies in this area. This comparison indicates that the predicted chloride diffusion coefficient level is within a ±25% error margin in the specimens. The results indicate that reducing the water-to-binder ratio and adding the silica fume to a dosage of 10% reduces the chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete. This study also confirms that the chloride diffusion coefficient increases with temperature and decreases over time.     

Simulation studies of methods to delay corrosion and increase service life for cracked concrete exposed to chlorides

The ingress of chlorides in reinforced concrete leads to the onset of steel reinforcement corrosion and eventually compromises a structure’s integrity. To extend its service life and improve safety, it is crucial to develop sound repair strategies for our nation’s infrastructure. In this paper, results are presented for numerical simulations to study the effectiveness of fillers for repair of cracks in concrete, so as to delay the onset of corrosion in reinforcing steel. Concretes without cracks and with either a 50 μm or 500 μm wide crack located directly above the steel reinforcement are simulated, with the addition of silica fume, a corrosion inhibitor, or epoxy-coated reinforcement being considered as additional scenarios. The effectiveness of the crack filler depends not only on its inherent diffusivity with respect to chloride ions, but also on its ability to penetrate and fill the damaged zone or interface between the open crack region and the bulk concrete. Additional simulations indicate that using continuum models instead of models that include details of the rebar placement can lead to underestimating the chloride concentration and overestimating the service life. Experiments are needed to study the ingress of chlorides in damaged (interfacial) regions adjacent to the crack or at the reinforcement surface, as the local transport properties of these regions can significantly influence service life predictions.     

Structural response of hyperstatic concrete beams reinforced with GFRP bars: Effect of increasing concrete confinement

The design of concrete structures reinforced with glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars is influenced by their reduced stiffness and brittleness. In hyperstatic structures, the methodology used in force analysis depends on the ductility of the structural systems, which in this case, being essentially provided by the concrete, can be potentially increased by confining concrete in critical zones. This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations about the flexural behaviour of continuous beams reinforced with GFRP bars, namely of their service and failure responses, and the effect of increasing concrete confinement in critical cross-sections. A calculation procedure to quantify the confinement effect in beams due to the reduction of the spacing between shear stirrups is first presented. The experimental investigations comprised a comparative study in which two-span concrete beams reinforced with either GFRP or steel bars were tested in bending. In the former, the effect of reducing the shear stirrups spacing was analyzed together with the under- and over-reinforcement at the central support and midspan cross-sections, respectively. The development of a crack hinge in the continuity support zone highlighted the better performance of beams under-reinforced on the top layer with GFRP bars compared to “equivalent” beams reinforced with steel, namely at the resistance level. In addition, the confinement at critical zones increased significantly the strength and ductility. The numerical investigations included the development of non-linear finite element models for all beams tested - numerical results are in good agreement with test data and seem to confirm the confinement effect observed in the experiments.     

基于pushover方法分析的受腐蚀钢筋混凝土柱抗震性能评价

根据先前对受腐蚀钢筋混凝土偏心受压构件低周反复性能的试验研究结果,提出了构件滞回耗能与钢筋锈蚀率的关系,结合先前提出的受腐蚀构件的恢复力骨架曲线的计算模型,采用pushover方法对地震作用下的受腐蚀钢筋混凝土构件的变形性能进行了分析,得到钢筋锈蚀率与结构弹塑性变形的关系。分析结果表明,随着钢筋锈蚀率的增大,钢筋混凝土构件的变形呈非线性增大,地震强度越大,结构变形随钢筋锈蚀率增加的越快。在规定的变形要求下,随钢筋锈蚀率的增大,结构可承受的地震作用呈非线性降低,钢筋锈蚀越严重,构件在相同变形下承受地震作用的能力越弱。     

Damage model for simulating chloride concentration in reinforced concrete with internal cracks

We present a method to simulate, in three dimensions, the concentration of chloride ions that penetrate into concrete with internal cracks. The method comprises the crack-propagation analysis of concrete and the diffusion analysis of chloride ions. A finite-element model with a damage model that is based on fracture mechanics for concrete was applied in the crack-propagation analysis, and we were able to reproduce the three-dimensional geometry of the internal cracks. Chloride-ion transfer through internal cracks was simulated by diffusion analysis with the simultaneous consideration of damage, and a diffusion coefficient that was expressed as a function of the damage variable obtained from crack-propagation analysis. We present a formulation of crack-propagation analysis by using the damage model and unsteady-diffusion analysis in consideration of damage. We also present a verification analysis of internal cracking in concrete to demonstrate that the crack width and the chloride concentration can be evaluated without mesh dependency. This is followed by a validation analysis. A comparison between the numerical and experimental results shows that the proposed method enables the high-accuracy simulation of chloride penetration into concrete with internal cracks.     

Modeling pull-out resistance of corroded reinforcement in concrete: Coupled three-dimensional finite element model

Aggressive environmental conditions, such as exposure to the sea climate or use of de-icing salts, have considerable influence on durability of reinforced concrete structures due to reinforcement corrosion-induced damage. In the present paper, a recently developed coupled three-dimensional chemo-hygro-thermo-mechanical model for concrete is discussed [1], [2]. The model takes into account the interaction between non-mechanical processes and mechanical properties of concrete (damage). The mechanical part of the model is based on the microplane model. It is validated through a 3D transient finite element analysis of a pull-out of corroded steel reinforcement from a concrete beam-end specimen, which was exposed to aggressive environmental conditions. For the corrosion phase, the influence of the anode and cathode position on the electric potential, current density, corrosion rate and corrosion induced damage is investigated. Moreover, the effect of corrosion on the pull-out capacity of reinforcement and the influence of transport of corrosion products through cracks are studied.     

Comparative study of different test methods for reinforced concrete durability assessment in marine environment

There are many different test methods to assess reinforced concrete durability. As in marine environment reinforcement corrosion due to chloride attack is the most important degradation process, chloride penetration rate has been compared with different durability tests results (concrete strength, porosity, water absorption, water penetration depth under pressure, capillarity, water and oxygen permeability) carried out on concrete cores obtained from the caissons of seven Spanish wharves. Data have been studied separately, depending on concrete location (chloride penetration rate is faster in submerged concretes than in tidal zone concretes) and cement type (mineral admixtures reduce permeation rate due to pore size refinement). Results show that it is advisable to control concrete water tightness through water penetration under pressure test; additionally, in order to make sure a slow corrosion rate, it should be advisable to control oxygen permeability in tidal zone concretes.     

Fiber volume fraction and ductility index of concrete beams

The mechanical response of fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) beams depends on the amount of fibers, and the transition from brittle to ductile behavior in bending is related to a critical value of fiber volume fraction. Such quantity, which is mechanically equivalent to the minimum amount of steel rebars in reinforced concrete beams, can be defined according to the new approach proposed herein. It derives from the application of a general model and from the introduction of the so-called ductility index (DI). When FRC beams show a ductile behavior DI is positive, whereas DI is negative in the case of brittle response. Both the theoretical and experimental results prove the existence of a general linear relationship between DI and the fiber volume fraction. Accordingly, a new design-by-testing procedure can be used to determine the critical value of fiber volume fraction, which corresponds to a ductility index equal to zero.     

Prediction of long term chloride concentration in concrete

The paper presents a wide range of experimental data of the authors and of other researchers on acid-soluble chloride diffusion in different mixes of concrete, and shows conclusively that the chloride diffusion coefficient D_c is strongly dependent on the period of exposure of concrete to a chloride environment. Consequently, long term prediction of chloride concentrations on the basis of Fick's second law of diffusion, which inherently assumes a constant value of D_c, is not an accurate procedure. A differential equation is derived based on the above law of diffusion, which takes into account the time variation of D_c, and a procedure is outlined for the accurate prediction of long term chloride concentrations in concrete. The chloride concentration profiles derived using this procedure show good correlation with experimental data.     

Strengthening of reinforced concrete beams in flexure by partial jacketing

This work investigates the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened in bending by the addition of concrete and steel on their tension sides using expansion bolts as shear connectors, technique here denominated partial jacketing. The experimental program comprised tests on eight full-scale reinforced concrete beams, simply supported, with rectangular cross section (150 mm × 400 mm) and 4,500 mm length. Five of these beams were strengthened in bending by partial jacketing, while the other three did not receive any strengthening and served as reference beams. The flexural reinforcement ratio in the beams varied between 0.49% and 2.33% and the beams target concrete strength was 35 MPa. On the basis of the obtained test results, the studied strengthening technique proven to be efficient in terms of increasing the resistance and stiffness of the beams. The used expansion bolts as shear connectors proven to be practical and added ease to the application of this technique.     

The effect of steel fibres on the earthquake-resistant design of reinforced concrete structures

The results of an experimental investigation are presented, studying the effect of fibres on the behaviour of reinforced-concrete (RC) structures designed in accordance with Eurocode 8. Twelve two-span continuous RC columns, eight with and four without steel fibres, were tested to failure, under constant axial force and monotonic or cyclic lateral displacement. Specimens without fibres suffered in some cases premature brittle failure, reflecting the incompatibility between post-peak concrete behaviour and the theoretical model underlying RC design. It was shown that it is possible to correct for this incompatibility through the use of steel fibres, resulting in a behaviour that satisfied current performance requirements for strength and ductility.     

Nonlinear finite element analysis of reinforced concrete beams strengthened by fiber-reinforced plastics

Numerical analyses are performed using the ABAQUS finite element program to predict the ultimate loading capacity of rectangular reinforced concrete beams strengthened by fiber-reinforced plastics applied at the bottom or on both sides of these beams. Nonlinear material behavior, as it relates to steel reinforcing bars, plain concrete, and fiber-reinforced plastics is simulated using appropriate constitutive models. The influences of fiber orientation, beam length and reinforcement ratios on the ultimate strength of the beams are investigated. It has been shown that the use of fiber-reinforced plastics can significantly increase the stiffnesses as well as the ultimate strengths of reinforced concrete beams. In addition, with the same fiber-reinforced plastics layer numbers, the ultimate strengths of beams strengthened by fiber-reinforced plastics at the bottom of the beams are much higher than those strengthened by fiber-reinforced plastics on both sides of the beams.     

Failure behaviors of reinforced concrete beams subjected to high impact loading

To attain a better understanding of the failure behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) beams under impact load, series of high speed impact experiments were performed using an instrumented drop-weight impact machine. The test program was successful in providing a substantial volume of test data including impact loads, mid-span deflections, crack profiles and strains. These data was analyzed, focusing on the impact load characteristics and the impact behaviors of RC beams. Various characteristic values and their relationships were investigated such as the drop height, the static flexural load-carrying capacity, the input impact energy and the beam response values. Two empirical formulas were proposed to estimate the maximum and residual deflection of the beam based on the static flexural load-carrying capacity and the input impact energy. The applicability of the proposed equations was confirmed by comparison with the experimental results obtained by other researchers.     

Shear strength of reinforced concrete beams with stirrups

This study presents alternative shear strength prediction equations for reinforced concrete (RC) beams with stirrups. The shear strength is composed of the contribution of the nominal shear strength provided by stirrups and the nominal shear strength provided by concrete. For the concrete contribution, cracking shear strength values estimated by Arslan’s equations are almost same those obtained with ACI 318 simplified equation in terms of coefficient of variation (COV). However, mean values estimated by ACI 318 tend to be more conservative comparing to the mean values obtained with Arslan’s equations. Thus, for the consideration of concrete contribution to shear strength, Arslan’s equations are used. To obtain the shear strength of RC beams, shear strength provided by stirrups is added to the concrete shear strength estimated by Arslan’s equations. Results of existing 339 beam shear tests are used to investigate how accurate proposed equation estimates the shear strength of RC beams. Furthermore, ACI 318 and TS500 provisions are also compared to the aforementioned test results. It is found that proposed equations for beams with shear span to depth ratios (a/d) between 1.5 and 2.5 are also conservative with a lower COV than ACI 318 and TS500. However, when a/d ratios exceed 2.5 (both normal and high strength concrete beams), ACI 318, TS500 and proposed equations give similar COV value.     

Experimental investigation into flexural retrofitting of reinforced concrete bridge beams using FRP composites

End cover separation and shear crack debond are the two most critical debonding modes in beams retrofitted with fibre reinforced polymer composites due the brittle nature of the failures. However, these failures are still not fully understood. A testing program including 18 rectangular reinforced concrete beams is carried out to investigate the failure mechanisms and the influence of several parameters on these debond modes. Testing shows that end cover separation starts from FRP ends and fails in the form of shear failure at steel reinforcement level at the root of the concrete teeth between shear cracks. Shear crack debond failure is due to the opening of one of those inclined cracks. Several debond prediction models are then verified with the experiment proving to work relatively well.     

Methodology of calculating required chloride diffusion coefficient for intended service life as function of concrete cover in reinforced marine structures

For marine reinforced concrete (RC) structures, chloride initiated corrosion of reinforcement is generally accepted as the service life limiting degradation mechanism. A methodology is described for how the maximum required chloride diffusion coefficient (D) of a concrete for achieving an intended service life (t) can simply be calculated as a function of concrete cover thickness (x) over the reinforcement by D = constant·x²/t.The principle is based on the usual mathematical solution to Fick's 2nd law of diffusion. The constant is broken down into 3 factors; chloride concentration factor, aging factor and temperature factor, in which input parameters have to be selected. These factors are calculated for a range of selected input parameters illustrating their sensitivity. The largest uncertainty lays in proper selection of the aging factor of the diffusion coefficient. Some concrete recipes satisfying estimated chloride diffusion coefficients are proposed as part of the methodology.     

Mechanical damage of ordinary or prestressed reinforced concrete beams under cyclic bending

The behaviour of metallic materials under repeated loading has been examined since the 19th century, but extended studies are more and more needed especially for reinforced concrete structures such as bridges, where high-cycle fatigue phenomena can be significant. In the present paper, a theoretical model based on fracture mechanics concepts is proposed in order to analyse the mechanical damage of ordinary or prestressed reinforced concrete beams with a rectangular or a T cross-section subjected to cyclic bending. Local phenomena, such as fracturing or crushing of concrete and yielding or slippage of the longitudinal steel reinforcement, are examined. Further, fatigue life is predicted by applying a crack growth law, and the energy dissipated during the plastic shake-down phenomenon is evaluated.     

Model for practical prediction of natural carbonation in reinforced concrete: Part 1-formulation

A model is proposed for prediction of natural carbonation in reinforced concrete (RC) structures, and is potentially applicable to existing and new RC structures. The major components of the model comprise mathematical functions applied to predict the influence of concrete composition, and environmental factors on natural carbonation.This paper introduces the model concept and explains its structure including derivation, optimization and calibration. Over 163 data sets taken from a 10-year carbonation study were used in the model development and calibration. Only the experimental data that were based on outdoor natural exposure environment were employed in this research. Also in this study, the proposed model is compared with fib-Model Code 2010 using carbonation predictions generated from 346 data sets involving real world, highway structures. It is shown that the proposed model is comparably accurate and involves mainly basic tests with no major anticipated costs.     

Fracture stability and residual strength assessment of reinforced concrete beams

In conventional analysis and design procedures of reinforced concrete structures, the ability of concrete to resist tension is neglected. Under cyclic loading, the tension-softening behavior of concrete influences its residual strength and subsequent crack propagation. The stability and the residual strength of a cracked reinforced concrete member under fatigue loading, depends on a number of factors such as, reinforcement ratio, specimen size, grade of concrete, fracture properties, and on the tension-softening behavior of concrete. In this work, a method is proposed to assess the residual strength of reinforced concrete beams subjected to cyclic loading. The crack extension resistance based approach is used for determining the condition for unstable crack propagation. The effect of reinforcement is modeled as a closing force counteracting the effect of crack opening produced by the external moment. The effect of percentage reinforcement and specimen size on the failure of reinforced beams is studied. Finally, the residual strength of the beams are computed by including the softening behavior of concrete.