Mixed-mode fracture load prediction in lead-free solder joints

Double cantilever beam (DCB) fracture specimens were made by joining copper bars with both continuous and discrete SAC305 solder layers of different lengths under standard surface mount (SMT) processing conditions. The specimens were then fractured under mode-I and various mixed-mode loading conditions. The loads corresponding to crack initiation in the continuous joints were used to calculate the critical strain energy release rate, J_ci, at the various mode ratios using elastic–plastic finite element analysis (FEA). It was found that the J_ci from the continuous joint DCBs provided a lower bound strength prediction for discrete 2 mm and 5 mm long joints at the various mode ratios. Additionally, these J_ci values calculated from FEA using the measured fracture loads agreed reasonably with J_ci estimated from measured crack opening displacements at crack initiation in both the continuous and discrete joints. Therefore, the critical strain energy release rate as a function of the mode ratio of loading is a promising fracture criterion that can be used to predict the strength of solder joints of arbitrary geometry subject to combined tensile and shear loads.     

Failure mode analysis of lead-free solder joints under high speed impact testing

Using an Instron micro-impact system, this study investigates the failure characteristics of 96.5Sn–3Ag–0.5Cu lead-free solder joints aged at either room temperature or 125 °C, respectively, and then impacted at shear rates of up to 1 m/s. Four types of failure mode are identified, namely M1: interfacial fracture with no residual solder left on the pad; M2: interfacial fracture with residual solder left on the pad; M3: solder ball fracture; and M4: substrate fracture. The experimental results reveal that the solder specimens fail in different failure modes at the same impact speed. The transition from ductile to brittle failure occurs at an impact speed of around 0.5 m/s. At an impact speed of 0.7 (±0.05) m/s or more, over 70% of the specimens fail in the M1 or M2 modes under all of the testing conditions. The isothermal aging process is found to reduce the interfacial strength, and hence the percentage of M3 and M4 mode failures reduces significantly. Overall, the experimental results suggest that the failure mode distribution obtained in high speed impact tests performed at 0.5 m/s provides a feasible component-level quality assurance index.     

Effect of geometry on the fracture behavior of lead-free solder joints

Copper bars were soldered along their length with a thin layer of lead-free Sn3.0Ag05.Cu alloy under standard surface mount processing conditions to prepare double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens. The geometry of the DCBs was varied by changing the thickness of the solder layer and the copper bars. These specimens were then fractured under mode-I and two mixed-mode loading conditions. The initiation strain energy release rate, G_ci, increased with the relative fraction of mode-II, but was unaffected by the changes in either the substrate stiffness or the solder layer thickness. However, the steady-state strain energy release rate, realized after several millimeters of crack growth, was found to increase with the solder layer thickness at the various mode ratios. The crack path was found to be influenced by mode ratio of loading and followed a path that maximizes the von Mises strain rather than maximum principal stress. Finally, some preliminary results indicated that the loading rate significantly affects the G_ci.     

Strength analysis of metallic bonded joints containing defects

Finite element simulation has been utilized to study the overall strength of metallic single lap joints with defects in their adhesive layers. Three types of defects are taken into account respectively, which are local debonding, weak bonding and void. For the first two types of defects, a developed numerical method using the cohesive zone model modified by user-defined subroutines is carried out as to consider the influences of the defect size and location. Furthermore, a modified-Gurson model is employed to simulate the adhesive layer with voids, considering the influence of the void size. The results show that the overall strength of the joints diminishes as the defect size is increased. Especially, the adhesive fracture properties and the size of the weak bonding region have combined influences on the strength of the joints.     

Predicting fracture of solder joints with different constraint factors

Double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens of 2.5‐mm‐long SAC305 solder joints were prepared with thickness of copper adherends varying from 8 to 21 mm each. The specimens were tested under mode I loading conditions (ie, pure opening mode with no shear component of loading) with a strain rate of 0.03 second^?1. The measured fracture load was used to calculate the critical strain energy release rate for crack initiation, J_ci, in each case. Fracture behaviour showed a significant dependence on the adherend thickness; the J_ci and plastic deformation of the solder at crack initiation decreased significantly with increase in adherend thickness. This behaviour was attributed to changes in stress distribution along the solder layer when the adherend thickness was varied. The capability of J_ci as a property was then assessed to predict the fracture load of solder joints in specimens with different constraint levels caused by variations in adherend thicknesses. In light of the results obtained, a cohesive zone model (CZM) was developed to predict the fracture load of solder joints as a function of adherend thickness. Finally, a CZM with a single set of parameters was established to predict the fracture loads for all the cases. It was concluded that CZM was a better methodology to account for changes in degree of joint constraint imposed by bonding adherends.     

On the advantages of using a hypoeutectic Sn-Zn as lead-free solder material

Hypoeutectic Sn-Zn may be a better choice than the eutectic Sn-9Zn as a lead-free solder. We checked the non-equilibrium melting behaviors of a series of Sn-Zn alloys (2.5-9 wt.% Zn) by differential thermal analysis, and found that at a heating rate of 5 °C/min, Sn-6.5Zn behaves the same way as the eutectic Sn-9Zn in melting. Dipping and spreading tests were carried out to characterize the wettability of Sn-Zn alloys on Cu. Both tests indicated that Sn-6.5Zn has significantly better wettability to Cu than Sn-9Zn does. The reaction layers formed during the spreading tests were examined. For all samples with 2.5-9 wt.% Zn, two reaction layers are formed at the interface, a thick and flat Cu₅Zn₈ layer adjacent to Cu and a thin and irregular Cu-Zn-Sn layer adjacent to the alloy. The total thickness of the reaction layers between the alloy and Cu was found to remarkably decrease with decrease of the Zn concentration.     

Study of Debond Fracture Toughness of Sandwich Composites with Metal Foam Core

Two types of experiments were designed and performed to evaluate the adhesive bond in metal foam composite sandwich structures.The tensile bond strength of face/core was determined through the flatwise tensile test (FWT).The test results show that the interfacial peel strength is lower than the interlaminar peel strength in FWT test.The mode I interfacial fracture toughness(GIC)of sandwich structures containing a pre-crack on the upper face/core interface is determined by modified cracked sandwich beam(MCSB...     

球栅阵列无铅焊点随机振动失效研究

通过非接触式激光全息激振方法对试件(电路板组件)进行试验模态分析,了解其动态特性;以其第一阶固有频率作为中心频率,分别进行了三种不同加速度功率谱密度幅值的窄带随机振动疲劳试验,并对失效焊点进行金相剖面分析,探究球栅阵列(BGA)无铅焊点在随机振动载荷下的失效机理。结果表明,三种加速度功率谱密度幅值的随机振动试验中BGA无铅焊点的失效机理不尽相同,随着功率谱密度幅值增加,焊点失效位置由靠近电路板(PCB)一侧向靠近封装一侧转变,分别是靠近PCB一侧的焊球体,焊点颈部以及靠近封装一侧的Ni/金属间化合物(IMC)界面处,相应的失效模式由疲劳断裂转为脆性断裂     

Experimental and numerical studies on size and constraining effects in lead-free solder joints

The durability and reliability of lead‐free solder joints depends on a large number of factors, like geometry, processing parameters, microstructure and thermomechanical loads. In this work, the nature and influence of the plastic constraints in the solder due to joining partners have been studied by parametric finite element simulation of solder joints with different dimensions. The apparent hardening due to plastic constraints has been shown to strongly depend on the solder gap to thickness ratio with an inversely proportional evolution. Due to interaction of several parameters, the macroscopic stress–strain constitutive law of lead‐free solder materials should be determined in the most realistic conditions. In order to identify the elasto‐plastic constitutive law of Sn–Ag–Cu solders, a sub‐micron resolution Digital Image Correlation technique has been developed to measure the evolution of strain in solder joints during a tensile test. Experimental results of the stress–strain response of Sn–Ag–Cu solder joints have been determined for several solder gaps. The measured load–displacement curves have been used in an inverse numerical identification procedure to determine the constitutive elasto‐plastic behaviour of the solder material. The effects of geometrical constraints in a real solder joint with heterogeneous stress and strain fields are then studied by comparing the apparent (constrained) and constitutive (non‐constrained) stress–strain relationships. Once the size dependant constraining effects have been removed from the stress–strain relationship, the scale effects can be studied separately by comparing the constitutive elasto‐plastic parameters of joints with a variable thickness. Experimental stress–strain curves (constrained and unconstrained) for Sn–4.0Ag–0.5Cu solder in joints of 0.25–2.4 mm gap are presented and the constraining and the size effects are discussed.     

Fracture of metal/ceramic interfaces

The present paper examines metal/ceramic interfaces. Energy release rates are calculated with the finite element method for different elastic–plastic material laws of the metal. The local strain field of the metal is measured during a four-point bending test with an optical method and compared with results from the simulations. The aim of the work is to understand the influence of interface strength and material properties on the energy release rate.     

Strength prediction of adhesive joints after cyclic moisture conditioning using a cohesive zone model

This paper presents a methodology to predict the strength of adhesive joints under variable moisture conditions. The moisture uptake in adhesive joints was determined using a history dependent moisture prediction methodology where diffusion coefficients were based on experimental cyclic moisture uptake of bulk adhesive samples. The predicted moisture concentrations and moisture diffusion history were used in a structural analysis with a cohesive zone model to predict damage and failure of the joints. A moisture concentration and moisture history dependent bilinear cohesive zone law was used. The methodology was used to determine the damage and failure in aluminium alloy – epoxy adhesive single lap joints, conditioned at 50 °C and good predictions of failure load were observed. The damage in the adhesive joints decreased the load carrying capacity before reaching the failure load and a nonlinear relationship between the load and displacement was observed. Changes in crack initiation and crack propagation were also observed between different types of joints. The presented methodology is generic and may be applied to different types of adhesive joint and adhesive.     

Characterization of Co-Sn intermetallic compounds in Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu-0.5Co lead-free solder alloy

The minor addition of Co into Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu lead-free solder alloy triggered the formation of Co-Sn intermetallic compounds. The Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu-0.5Co solder alloy was heated up to 300 °C or 400 °C and then cooled down to the room temperature at different rates. A new Co-Sn intermetallic phase, say, CoSn₃ containing small amount of Cu, were detected. Only CoSn₃ phase was formed in the solder alloy from 300 °C regardless of the cooling rate. However, during the solidification from 400 °C, the CoSn₂ + CoSn₃ cascade structures were illustrated after slow furnace cooling due to the peritectical reaction, i.e., CoSn₂ + L(Sn) → CoSn₃, while only CoSn₂ was observed after rapid quench. A novel DSC technique was employed herein to demonstrate the presence of this peritectical reaction. The mechanical properties of the individual phases of Co-Sn intermetallics were measured and compared with other sole phases in the solder alloy.     

High-temperature shear strength of lead-free Sn-Sb-Ag/Al2O3 composite solder

The lead-free Sn-1.7Sb-1.5Ag solder alloy and the same material reinforced with 5 vol.% of 0.3-μm Al₂O₃ particles were synthesized using the powder-metallurgy route of blending, compaction, sintering, and extrusion. The mechanical properties of both monolithic and composite solders were studied by shear punch testing (SPT) at temperatures in the range of 25-130 °C. Depending on the test temperature, the shear yield stress (SYS) increased by 4.8-8.8 MPa, and ultimate shear strength (USS) increased by 6.2-8.8 MPa in the composite material. The strength improvement was mostly due to the CTE mismatch between the matrix and the particles, and to a lesser extent to the Orowan strengthening mechanism of the submicro-sized Al₂O₃ particles in the composite solder. The contribution of each of these mechanisms was used in a modified shear lag model to predict the total composite-strengthening achieved.     

Fatigue fracture of SnAgCu solder joints by microstructural modeling

The ongoing miniaturization trend in the microelectronic industry enforces component sizes to approach the micron, or even the nano scale. At these scales, the underlying microstructural sizes and the geometrical dimensions are comparable. The increasing influence of microscopic entities on the overall mechanical properties makes conventional continuum material models more and more questionable. In this study, the thermomechanical reliability of lead-free BGA solder balls is investigated by microstructural modeling. Microstructural input is provided by orientation imaging microscopy (OIM), converted into a finite element framework. Blowholes in BGA solder balls are examined by optical microscopy and a statistical analysis on their size, position and frequency is conducted. Combining the microstructural data with the appropriate material models, three dimensional local models are created. The fatigue life of the package is determined through a critical solder ball. The thermomechanical reliability of the local models are predicted using cohesive zone based fatigue damage models. The simulation results are validated by statistical analyses provided by the industry.     

Discrete cohesive zone model for mixed-mode fracture using finite element analysis

The discrete cohesive zone model (DCZM) is implemented using the finite element (FE) method to simulate fracture initiation and subsequent growth when material non-linear effects are significant. Different from the widely used continuum cohesive zone model (CCZM) where the cohesive zone model is implemented within continuum type elements and the cohesive law is applied at each integral point, DCZM uses rod type elements and applies the cohesive law as the rod internal force vs. nodal separation (or rod elongation). These rod elements have the provision of being represented as spring type elements and this is what is considered in the present paper. A series of 1D interface elements was placed between node pairs along the intended fracture path to simulate fracture initiation and growth. Dummy nodes were introduced within the interface element to extract information regarding the mesh size and the crack path orientation. To illustrate the DCZM, three popular fracture test configurations were examined. For pure mode I, the double cantilever beam configuration, using both uniform and biased meshes were analyzed and the results show that the DCZM is not sensitive to the mesh size. Results also show that DCZM is not sensitive to the loading increment, either. Next, the end notched flexure for pure mode II and, the mixed-mode bending were studied to further investigate the approach. No convergence difficulty was encountered during the crack growth analyses. Therefore, the proposed DCZM approach is a simple but promising tool in analyzing very general two-dimensional crack growth problems. This approach has been implemented in the commercial FEA software ABAQUS^® using a user defined subroutine and should be very useful in performing structural integrity analysis of cracked structures by engineers using ABAQUS^®.     

A procedure for the simulation of fatigue crack growth in adhesively bonded joints based on the cohesive zone model and different mixed-mode propagation criteria

This work deals with the simulation of the fatigue crack growth (FCG) in bonded joints. In particular a cohesive damage model is implemented in the commercial software Abaqus, in order to take into account for the damage produced by fatigue loading. The crack growth rate is evaluated with different Paris-like power laws expressed in terms of strain energy release rate. The crack growth rate is then translated into a variation of the damage distribution over the cohesive zone setting an equivalence between the increment of crack length and the increment of damage. The model takes also into account mixed mode I/II conditions. In this work the validity of the model is tested by comparison with theoretical trends for conditions of pure mode I, pure mode II and mixed mode loading. In the case of mixed mode conditions, different models are implemented for the crack growth rate computation. The results of the model are in very good agreement with the expected trends, therefore the model is adequate to simulate the fatigue crack growth behaviour of bonded joint.     

Cohesive zone simulations of crack growth along a rough interface between two elastic-plastic solids

It has been known for many years that crack propagation along interfaces is influenced by interface topography or roughness profile. This has given rise to a small body of literature in which interface toughening with stochastic surface finishes, produced by grinding, rolling, or grit blasting, has been the primary focus. However, there is very little information currently available on the effect of patterned interfaces that are characterized by a minimal number of geometric parameters. In the present article, roughness-enhanced toughening of a cohesive interface between two identical materials is explored with a pure sinusoidal interface morphology that is characterized by its aspect ratio or ratio of amplitude to wavelength. Sixteen finite element meshes, each with a different aspect ratio, were constructed to study initiation and growth of a semi-infinite interface crack due to remote mode-I loading. The cohesive interface was modeled with a viscosity-modified Xu-Needleman cohesive zone law, and the solids were characterized with continuum elastic and elastic-plastic constitutive models. Predicted relationships between the aspect ratio and the macroscopic toughness point to key differences in the material models. A set of critical parameters which include the aspect ratio, material and cohesive properties is predicted such that catastrophic crack growth is inhibited due to crack blunting. A clear boundary between brittle and ductile fracture behavior is thus identified. The results suggest some guidelines for practical design of failure resistant interfaces through appropriate choice of geometric, material, and cohesive parameters.     

On the practical application of the cohesive model

The cohesive model has been formulated such that it can be used for practical application. A specific traction-separation law is proposed which is mainly given by the cohesive stress, T₀ and the cohesive energy, Γ₀. Experimental procedures have been developed which allow the determination of these material parameters. By means of experiments on three different materials and different specimen geometries it has been demonstrated that the proposed procedure provides very good predictions.     

Fracture load predictions and measurements for highly toughened epoxy adhesive joints

A method to predict the ultimate strength of adhesive joints has been evaluated for the quasi-static loading of a variety of cracked-lap shear (CLS) and single-lap shear (SLS) joints bonded with a high-strength, toughened epoxy adhesive. The adhesive strength was experimentally characterized in terms of the steady-state critical strain energy release rate, , as a function of the loading phase angle, using double cantilever beam (DCB) joints. Comparing the calculated energy release rate using the J-integral with the at the corresponding phase angle, the ultimate failure load in the fracture joint was predicted and compared with experimental results. When the toughening of the adhesive during subcritical crack growth (i.e. its R-curve behavior) was considered in the analysis, good agreement between the predicted and experimental failure loads was achieved, both for joints made with aluminum or steel adherends. The initial condition at the end of joint overlap (fillet or precrack) did not affect the ultimate joint strength because of the significant amount of subcritical crack growth.