Renewable energy resource potential in Pakistan

Pakistan energy situation is seriously troubling today due to lack of careful planning and implementation of its energy policies. To avoid the worse situation in the years ahead, the country will have to exploit its huge natural renewable resource. In this paper a review is being presented about renewable energy resource potential available in the country to be exploited for useful and consistent energy supplies. On average solar global insolation 5–7 kWh/m²/day, wind speed 5–7.5 m/s, Biogas 14 million m³/day, microhydel more than 600 MW (for small units) with persistency factor of more than 80% over a year exist in the country. Solar and wind maps are presented along with identification of hot spring sites as resource of geothermal energy. The research results presented in this paper are not only useful for government policy makers, executing agencies but also for private sector national and international agencies and stake holders who want to invest in Pakistan for renewable energy projects or business.     

Wind energy and assessment of wind energy potential in Turkey

In this study, the potential of wind energy and assessment of wind energy systems in Turkey were studied. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the wind energy potential and future wind conversion systems project in Turkey. The wind energy potential of various regions was investigated; and the exploitation of the wind energy in Turkey was discussed. Various regions were analyzed taking into account the wind data measured as hourly time series in the windy locations. The wind data used in this study were taken from Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIEI) for the year 2010. This paper reviews the assessment of wind energy in Turkey as of the end of May 2010 including wind energy applications. Turkey's total theoretically available potential for wind power is around 131,756.40 MW and sea wind power 17,393.20 MW annually, according to TUREB (TWEA). When Turkey has 1.5 MW nominal installed wind energy capacity in 1998, then this capacity has increased to 1522.20 MW in 2010. Wind power plant with a total capacity of 1522.20 MW will be commissioned 2166.65 MW in December 2011.     

An application of a combined wind and solar energy system in Izmir

In this work, a combined system which is produced electrical energy from both solar radiation via solar cells and wind energy by using wind turbine was studied. For wind energy, measurements of wind velocities at 12 m height were taken. Then, these values were calculated for 42 m by using Hellmann equation. After that, wind energy converted to the electrical energy. However, value of solar radiation from solar cells was taken at the optimum slope angle of collector which provided higher energy production for each 1 h during this application. Thus, obtained data from each system were used together for finding total energy. For this study, measurements, which would be used in calculation of wind energy and solar energy were taken for four years between 1995 and 1998 in Izmir. As a result, energy of the combined system could support each other when one of them produces energy insufficiently.     

Assessing complementarity of wind and solar resources for energy production in Italy. A Monte Carlo approach

Wind and solar energy are expected to play a major role in the current decade to help Europe reaching the renewable energy penetration targets fixed by Directive 2009/28/EC. However, it is difficult to predict the actual production profiles of wind and solar energy as they depend heavily on variable meteorological features of solar radiation and wind speed. In an ideal system, wind and solar electricity are both injected in a fast reacting grid instantaneously matching supply and demand. In such a system wind and solar electricity production profiles should complement each other as much as possible in order to minimise the need of storage and additional capacity. In the present paper the complementarity of wind and solar resources is assessed for a test year in Italy.To achieve this goal we employ data at high spatial and temporal resolution data for both solar radiation and wind speed in Italy obtained from running two state of the art models (PVGIS and MINNI). Hourly profiles for solar and wind energy produced are compared in each 4 × 4 km² grid cell in Italy for 2005, and hourly, daily and monthly correlation coefficients are computed in order to assess the local complementarity of the two resources. A Monte Carlo approach is also developed to estimate how large-scale wind and solar energy productions could be potentially involved to complement each other in a scenario with up to 100 production sites across Italy. The results show how local complementarity can be very interesting with monthly correlation coefficients reaching values lower than −0.8 in several areas. Large-scale complementarity is also relevant with nation-wide monthly correlation coefficients showing values between −0.65 and −0.6. These model results indicate that in this sample year of 2005, wind and solar energy potential production have shown complementary time behaviour complementary, favourably supporting their integration in the energy system.     

Designing an index for assessing wind energy potential

To meet the increasing global demand for renewable energy, such as wind energy, an increasing number of wind parks are being constructed worldwide. Finding a suitable location requires a detailed and often costly analysis of local wind conditions. Plain average wind speed maps cannot provide a precise forecast of wind power because of the non-linear relationship between wind speed and production. We suggest a new approach to assess the local wind energy potential. First, meteorological reanalysis data are applied to obtain long-term low-scale wind speed data at specific turbine locations and hub heights. Second, the relation between wind data and energy production is determined via a five parameter logistic function using actual high-frequency energy production data. The resulting wind energy index allows for a turbine-specific estimation of the expected wind power at an unobserved location. A map of the wind power potential for Germany exemplifies our approach.     

Solar and wind energy in Poland as power sources for electrolysis process - A review of studies and experimental methodology

The production of hydrogen is still a major challenge, due to the high costs and often also environmental burdens it generates. It is possible to produce hydrogen in emission-free way: e.g. using a process of electrolysis powered by renewable energy. The paper presents the concept of a research, experimental stand for the storage of renewable energy in the form of hydrogen chemical energy with the measurement methodology. The research involves the use of proton exchange membrane electrolysis technology, which is characterized by high efficiency and flexibility of energy extraction for the process of electrolysis from renewable sources. The system consist of PV panel, PEM electrolyzer, battery, programmable logic controller system and optional a wind turbine. Preliminary experimental tests results have shown that the electrolyzer can produce in average 158.1 cc/min of hydrogen with the average efficiency 69.87%.     

Effect of wind energy system performance on optimal renewable energy model-an analysis

The Optimal Renewable Energy Model (OREM) has been developed to determine the optimum level of renewable energy sources utilisation in India for the year 2020–21. The model aims at minimising costefficiency ratio and determines the optimum allocation of different renewable energy sources for various end-uses. The extent of social acceptance level, potential limit, demand and reliability will decide the renewable energy distribution pattern and are hence used as constraints in the model. In this paper, the performance and reliability of wind energy system and its effects on OREM model has been analysed. The demonstration windfarm (4 MW) which is situated in Muppandal, a village in the southern part of India, has been selected for the study. The windfarm has 20 wind turbine machines of 200 KW capacity. The average technical availability, real availability and capacity factor have been analysed from 1991 to 1995 and they are found to be 94.1%, 76.4% and 25.5% respectively. The reliability factor of wind energy system is found to be 0.5 at 10,000 hours. The OREM model is analysed considering the above said factors for wind energy system, solar energy system and biomass energy systems. The model selects wind energy for pumping end-use to an extent of 0.3153×10¹⁵ KJ.     

Solar energy in India: Strategies, policies, perspectives and future potential

Renewable energy sources and technologies have potential to provide solutions to the longstanding energy problems being faced by the developing countries like India. Solar energy can be an important part of India's plan not only to add new capacity but also to increase energy security, address environmental concerns, and lead the massive market for renewable energy. Solar thermal electricity (STE) also known as concentrating solar power (CSP) are emerging renewable energy technologies and can be developed as future potential option for electricity generation in India. In this paper, efforts have been made to summarize the availability, current status, strategies, perspectives, promotion policies, major achievements and future potential of solar energy options in India.     

Sustainable energy usage in Oman—Opportunities and barriers

Energy is directly related to the most critical social issues which affect sustainable development. Today there is a great incentive for countries to exploit renewable energies in order to slow down the changes in environment and to guard against future trends. This paper presents a review of the assessed potential of renewable resources and practical limitations to their considerable use in the perspective of present scenarios and future projections of the national energy for Oman. Solar and wind are likely to play an important role in the future energy in Oman provided that clear policies are established by the higher authority for using renewable energy resources. Comparison of different solar energy technologies revealed that Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) technology may constitute a more appropriate choice for large solar power plants implementation in Oman. Moreover, Oman will not be alone in the region in this regard as similar moves are carried out in other Middle Eastern countries. The status of energy conservation and demand-side management are also discussed in the paper.     

Assessment of renewable energy resources potential in Oman and identification of barrier to their significant utilization

Oman relies on gas and oil resources fuels for almost all of its energy needs. Almost 99% of its power generation is based on natural gas. However, the country's natural gas supplies are currently largely committed, and it may become a net importer soon. Therefore, there is a need to look for alternative energy resources. This paper presents a review of the assessed potential of renewable resources and practical limitations to their considerable use in the perspective of present scenarios and future projections of the national energy for Oman. Solar and wind are likely to play an important role in the future energy in Oman provided that clear policies are established by the higher authority for using renewable energy resources. Rural Areas Electric Company has initiated solar and wind pilot projects in its concession area to confirm the performance and efficiency of renewable technologies in local conditions.     

Solar and wind opportunities for water desalination in the Arab regions

Despite the abundance of renewable energy resources in the Arab region, the use of solar thermal, solar photovoltaics, and wind is still in its technological and economic infancy. Great potential exists, but economic constraints have impeded more rapid growth for many applications. These technologies have certainly advanced technically over the last quarter century to the point where they should now be considered clean-energy alternatives to fossil fuels. For the Arab countries and many other regions of the world, potable water is becoming as critical a commodity as electricity. As renewable energy technologies advance and environmental concerns rise, these technologies are becoming more interesting partners for powering water desalination projects. We evaluate the current potential and viability of solar and wind, emphasizing the strict mandate for accurate, reliable site-specific resource data. Water desalination can be achieved through either thermal energy (using phase-change processes) or electricity (driving membrane processes), and these sources are best matched to the particular desalination technology. Desalination using solar thermal can be accomplished by multistage flash distillation, multi-effect distillation, vapor compression, freeze separation, and solar still methods. Concentrating solar power offers the best match to large-scale plants that require both high-temperature fluids and electricity. Solar and wind electricity can be effective energy sources for reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and ultra- and nano-filtration. All these water desalination processes have special operational and high energy requirements that put additional requisites on the use of solar and wind to power these applications. We summarize the characteristics of the various desalination technologies. The effective match of solar thermal, solar photovoltaics, and wind to each of these is discussed in detail. An economic analysis is provided that incorporates energy consumption, water production levels, and environmental benefits in its model. Finally, the expected evolution of the renewable technologies over the near- to mid-term is discussed with the implications for desalination applications over these timeframes.     

Solar energy outlook in Malaysia

Predicted to be the clean energy of tomorrow, solar energy has been in the forefront of energy development in many developed countries and a potential source of energy to developing countries like Malaysia. This paper presents Malaysia's solar energy or solar photovoltaic developmental outlook. The study is done by first looking into the country's energy policies related to solar energy. Key players in the solar energy development such as government institutions are introduced. Early solar energy programmes and a key project called Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic (MBIPV) as well as its successful initiatives will be presented. Measures which have taken by the government of Malaysia including attractive incentives to encourage solar photovoltaic development, the country's potential in solar energy, foreign investments and future directions as well a feed-in tariff scheme will be presented in length to provide a broad spectrum of solar energy development in Malaysia. The outlook has been positive and the country is active in promoting solar as an alternative energy and is aware of benefits it will bring toward its economic development in the future.     

Growth curves and sustained commissioning modelling of renewable energy: Investigating resource constraints for wind energy

Several recent studies have proposed fast transitions to energy systems based on renewable energy technology. Many of them dismiss potential physical constraints and issues with natural resource supply, and do not consider the growth rates of the individual technologies needed or how the energy systems are to be sustained over longer time frames. A case study is presented modelling potential growth rates of the wind energy required to reach installed capacities proposed in other studies, taking into account the expected service life of wind turbines. A sustained commissioning model is proposed as a theoretical foundation for analysing reasonable growth patterns for technologies that can be sustained in the future. The annual installation and related resource requirements to reach proposed wind capacity are quantified and it is concluded that these factors should be considered when assessing the feasibility, and even the sustainability, of fast energy transitions. Even a sustained commissioning scenario would require significant resource flows, for the transition as well as for sustaining the system, indefinitely. Recent studies that claim there are no potential natural resource barriers or other physical constraints to fast transitions to renewable energy appear inadequate in ruling out these concerns.     

Assessment of utilization of wind energy resources in Nigeria

The study critically reviews the prospects and challenges of utilizing wind energy resources for power generation in Nigeria. The various initiatives by governments and researchers were surveyed and the nation is found to sit in the midst of enormous potential for wind harvest for power generation. The far northern states, the mountainous regions and different places of the central and south-eastern states were identified as good areas for wind harvest together with the offshore areas spanning from Lagos through Ondo, Ogun, Cross-Rivers to Rivers states along the Atlantic Ocean in the south–south. Despite this great potential and huge prospect, the country is found to still suffer from serious energy crises due to her over dependence on hydropower which also is susceptible to seasonal variation in the amount of water levels at dams. There is yet to be committed wind energy project for power generation on-going in the country. Several challenges bedeviling the development and utilization of wind energy resources were identified and suggestions highlighted to help pull the nation out of this lingering energy crisis.     

The effect of wind speed at the top of the tower on the performance and energy generated from _thermosyphon solar turbine

Energy generated from wind turbine depends to a great extent on the wind speed at its inlet. The use of thermosyphon solar tower is an attempt to increase the air velocity at inlet of the wind turbine and of course to increase its power. The wind speed in a certain location changes always with time and with the height above ground surface. In this work, the effect of wind speed at the top of the tower on the performance as well as on the energy generated from thermosyphon solar turbine was studied theoretically. One location in Egypt was chosen for this study. The calculations were achieved mainly with the solar turbine located at tower bottom. For the purpose of comparison, the energy generated from the solar turbine was compared with that generated from free wind turbine at tower height with the absence of solar tower. It was found that, the wind speed at the top of the tower results in a pressure drop which affects the performance of the thermosyphon solar turbine. This pressure drop increases with the rise in wind speed and will be zero only when the wind speed at the top of the tower reaches zero. It was found also that, there is an increase in friction losses through the tower and a decrease in both temperature difference between inlet and outlet of the tower and in heat losses from tower walls with the rise in wind speed in location. The inlet air velocity to the solar turbine and consequently its specific power were found to be increased with the increase in wind speed at the top of the tower. Therefore, the effect of wind speed at the top of the tower must be taken into account during thermosyphon solar tower calculations. By comparing the performance of solar turbine and the free wind turbine located at tower height with the absence of thermosyphon solar tower, it was found that the mean inlet air velocity to the solar turbine located at tower bottom and consequently its specific power are higher than these values for free wind turbine. The mean inlet air velocity to the solar turbine is found to be 117% of its value for a free wind turbine. The yearly specific energy generated from solar turbine is expected to be 157% of its value for free wind turbine.     

Management of natural gas resources and search for alternative renewable energy resources: A case study of Pakistan

Energy usage in Pakistan has increased rapidly in past few years due to increase in economic growth. Inadequate and inconsistent supply of energy has created pressure on the industrial and commercial sectors of Pakistan and has also affected environment. Demand has already exceeded supply and load shedding has become common phenomenon. Due to excessive consumption of energy resources it would become difficult to meet future energy demands. This necessitates proper management of existing and exploration of new energy resources. Energy resource management is highly dependent on the supply and demand pattern. This paper highlights the future demands, production and supply of energy produced from natural gas based on economic and environmental constraints in Pakistan with special emphasis on management of natural gas. An attempt has been made by proposing a suitable course of action to meet the rising gas demand. A mechanism has been proposed to evaluate Pakistan's future gas demand through quantitative analysis of base, worst and best/chosen option. CO₂ emission for all cases has also been evaluated. The potential, constraints and possible solutions to develop alternative renewable energy resources in the country have also been discussed. This work will be fruitful for the decision makers responsible for energy planning of the country. This work is not only helpful for Pakistan but is equally important to other developing countries to manage their energy resources.     

Wind characteristics and wind energy potential in Morocco

The wind characteristics of 11 sites in the windy regions in Morocco have been analysed. The annual average wind speed for the considered sites ranged from 5 m/s to 10 m/s and the average power density from 100 W/m² to 1000 W/m², which might be suitable for electrical power production by installing wind farms. On an annual scale the observations of the distribution of hourly wind speed are better fitted by the Weibull hybrid distribution in contrast to the Weibull distribution.The wind power is estimated to be 1817 MW, that is to say, the exploitable wind energy is 15198 GWh, which represents theoretically 11% of the total consumed energy in Morocco in 1994.     

A 100% wind,water, sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy plan for Washington State

This study analyzes the potential and consequences of Washington State's use of wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) to produce electricity and electrolytic hydrogen for 100% of its all-purposes energy (electricity, transportation, heating/cooling, industry) by 2050, with 80–85% conversion by 2030. Electrification plus modest efficiency measures can reduce Washington State's 2050 end-use power demand by ∼39.9%, with ∼80% of the reduction due to electrification, and can stabilize energy prices since WWS fuel costs are zero. The remaining demand can be met, in one scenario, with ∼35% onshore wind, ∼13% offshore wind, ∼10.73% utility-scale PV, ∼2.9% residential PV, ∼1.5% commercial/government PV, ∼0.65% geothermal, ∼0.5% wave, ∼0.3% tidal, and ∼35.42% hydropower. Converting will require only 0.08% of the state's land for new footprint and ∼2% for spacing between new wind turbines (spacing that can be used for multiple purposes). It will further result in each person in the state saving ∼$85/yr in direct energy costs and ∼$950/yr in health costs [eliminating ∼830 (190–1950)/yr statewide premature air pollution mortalities] while reducing global climate costs by ∼$4200/person/yr (all in 2013 dollars). Converting will therefore improve health and climate while reducing costs.     

Profitability of wind energy: Short-term risk factors and possible improvements

The wind energy industry has grown considerably in recent years. If the current rate of growth of installed capacity of 1500 MW per year continues, by 2006 Spain will achieve the objective established for 2010 in the “Plan de Fomento” [Plan to Promote Renewable Energies] or for 2008 in the more ambitious “Plan de Infraestructuras Eléctricas y Gasísticas” [Plan for Electrical and Gas Installations]. Achieving these important goals, which require significant investment, depends upon the continued stability of salaries and the willingness of banks to provide financing. Therefore, we studied those factors that had the greatest short-term impact on the economic viability of wind energy projects in Spain and we found that the inherent risk within the sector can become a real obstacle in terms of development and short-term financing. Given the possibility of carrying out financial analysis that is more exhaustive than traditionally employed methods, the various models for evaluating investment in risk conditions were studied with the aim of choosing the ideal tool that takes account of the highly fortuitous nature of wind velocity.     

High resolution modelling of the on‐shore technical wind energy potential in Spain

The potential of on‐shore wind energy in Spain is assessed using a methodology based on a detailed characterization of the wind resource. To obtain such a characterization, high‐resolution simulations of the weather in Spain during 1 year are performed, and the wind statistics thus gathered are used to estimate the electricity‐generation potential. The study reports also the evolution with the installed power of the capacity factor, a parameter closely related to the cost of the generated energy, as well as the occupied land, which bears environmental and social acceptance implications. A parametric study is performed to assess the uncertainties in the study associated to the choice of the characteristic wind‐turbine farm used; and comparisons are provided with other similar studies. The study indicates that the overall technical potential is approximately 1100 TWh/y; and that about 70 GW of installed wind power could operate with capacity factors in excess of 24%, resulting in an annual electricity generation of approximately 190 TWh/y, or 60% of the electricity consumption in 2008. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.