Rock salt dilatancy boundary from combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests

This paper presents an experimental investigation of rock salt dilatancy boundary based on combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests carried out on the rock salt samples from the Asse Salt Mine, Germany. The experimental results were evaluated to determine the dilatancy boundary under specified stress, stress loading rate and pore pressure. Pore volume changes caused by deviatoric stresses were measured during triaxial compression tests. The dilatancy boundary was then determined from the maximum compression on a stress–strain curve which separates the compression and dilatancy regions. Variations in acoustic emissions that occur during microcrack development under triaxial compression were recorded with ten sensors mounted on the outer surface of the cylindrical samples. A spontaneous increase observed in the cumulative number of acoustic events is consistent with the dilatancy boundary determined from the minimum pore volume. It is confirmed that the dilatancy boundary depends on both stress loading rate and pore pressure. The dilatancy boundary slightly decreases with increasing the loading rate, but increases with increasing the minor normal stress. High pore pressures accelerate the dilatancy. A Biot coefficient of 0.25 for Asse rock salt was determined from the dilatancy boundary. An analysis of two-dimensional (2D) fractal dimensions determined for several samples shows that the samples with smaller dimensions have slightly higher dilatancy boundaries. The dilatancy boundary values of Asse rock salt are lower than those reported for crystalline rocks, although both rock types show similar dilatancy behaviour.     

Acoustic emission in host-rock material for radioactive waste disposal: comparison between clay and rock salt

The use of clay masses for radioactive waste disposal requires a comprehensive analysis of fracture processes in clay. Acoustic emission (AE) was used to obtain a better insight into damage evolution during uniaxial loading of Boom Clay specimens. A comparison of AE in clay and rock salt shows a much lower AE activity in clay. This, together with the higher attenuation, would inhibit the use of the AE technique for large-scale in-situ monitoring in clay masses. Cyclic uniaxial tests showed that, similarly to rock salt, clay exhibits a very well-pronounced Kaiser effect in AE with Felicity ratios around unity. The Kaiser effect takes place at different loading stages (before and at the flow limit) and, during reloading, it coincides with the deformation curve inflection. Further research is required to study the applicability of the Felicity ratio as a measure of the intensity of healing processes in clay. Electronic Publication     

Development of a transparent triaxial cell and observation of rock deformation in compression and creep tests

A transparent triaxial cell was designed and manufactured using acrylic resin. The cell was used to conduct strength and creep tests. Photographs were taken of the specimens at constant time intervals during the constant strain rate test. Photographs were also taken at constant intervals of strain during the creep test, but this rate was changed to one image per second when the specimens first showed tertiary creep. Comparison of the axial and lateral strains during the constant strain-rate and creep tests indicated no significant differences between the two tests. It is well known that the axial creep strain rate is inversely proportional to remaining life in tertiary creep. This study showed that the lateral creep strain rate is also inversely proportional to remaining life. The constant strain-rate tests were conducted with transparent end pieces attached firmly to the upper and lower ends of the specimens. Three holes were drilled into the end pieces, and water was expelled into the holes when the specimens were compressed. It was clearly observed that the water began flowing from the holes back into the specimen during the volumetric expansion of the specimen. The transparent triaxial cell permitted easy observation of water ejection and re-absorption into the specimens.     

Experimental investigation on fracturing process of marble under biaxial compression

In this study, servo-controlled biaxial compression tests were conducted on marble specimens to investigate their failure characteristics and fracturing process. The complete stress–strain curves were obtained, and the three-dimensional (3D) features of the failure surfaces were acquired by 3D laser scanning. Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring and moment tensor (MT) analysis were used in combination to better understand the fracturing mechanism of marble under biaxial compression. It was noted that a type of 3D stepwise cracking behaviour occurred on the fracturing surfaces of the examined specimens. The stress dropped multiple times, and a repeated fracturing mode corresponding to the repeated stress drops in the post-peak regime was observed. Three substages, i.e. stress stabilisation, stress decrease and stress increase, were identified for a single fracturing mode. Then quantitative and statistical analyses of the fracturing process at each substage were discussed. Based on the testing results, it was found that at the stress stabilisation substage, the proportion of mixed-mode fractures increased. At the stress decrease substage, the proportion of mixed-mode fractures decreased, and the tensile or shear fractures increased. At the stress increase substage, the proportion of mixed-mode or tensile fractures decreased, and the shear fractures increased. Finally, a conceptual model for the stepwise crack formation was proposed.     

三轴多级荷载下盐岩声波声发射特征与损伤演化规律研究

 采用岩石声波、声发射一体化监测装置,系统地研究三轴多级循环荷载作用下盐岩超声波波速与声发射变化特征。结果表明：(1) 岩石的超声波波速和声发射活动与应力状态呈现出良好的一致性。加载阶段,超声波波速上升,声发射活跃,卸载阶段,超声波波速下降,声发射平静,应力级数越高,这一特征越显著。(2) 盐岩的声波、声发射特征与试验围压应力密切相关。围压水平越低,应力循环试验中岩石波速变化率越大,声发射事件数量越多;围压水平越高,岩石超声波波速变化率越小,声发射事件数量越少。五级应力荷载试验中,围压条件为5,10,15,20 MPa时盐岩的声发射事件数量分别为1 026,703,361和206个,显示了“围压致密效应”。(3) 分别应用卸载模量、裂隙密度和Felicity比表征盐岩的损伤演化。结论认为：盐岩的裂隙密度和Felicity比变化与岩体承载破坏特征较为一致,可以较好地反映盐岩的损伤破裂过程,而利用卸载模量表征盐岩损伤误差较大,这是由于盐岩特殊的黏塑性变形特征造成的。     

岩石单轴压缩下损伤表征及演化规律对比研究

采用声波、声发射一体化装置同步测试单轴压缩下花岗岩应力应变、超声波及声发射(AE)特征演化规律,分析岩石特征应力对应的宏–细观表征,通过裂纹体积应变、声发射及声波特征等共同量化岩石损伤演化过程。结果表明:裂纹体积应变和波速对应的损伤起始应力吻合较好,AE事件、幅值分布、b值对应的应力特征值基本一致,但AE事件表征的损伤累积开始早于宏观变形和声波;初始加载阶段波速及各项异性系数K均逐渐增加,之后变化趋缓,起裂应力后侧向波速开始减小,而K逐渐增大;峰值应力前裂纹的快速聚结引起AE信号幅值大幅增加,伴随的是b值的快速下降和AE累积能量的陡增;基于起裂应力后损伤才开始累积的假定,量化并对比了裂纹体应变、AE事件等多参量表征的损伤演化规律,发现花岗岩损伤累积绝大部分发生在损伤应力之后。裂纹体应变表征的损伤具有明确物理意义,但裂纹体应变计算中泊松比选取存在一定主观性,裂纹体应变、AE能量、模量等参数表征的损伤在接近峰值应力前均出现大幅增加,与b值的快速下降对应。综合对比分析,AE能量表征的损伤具有更好的可靠性,反映了岩石损伤破裂的本质特征。     

岩石基复合材料支护采空区动力失稳声发射特征统计分析

基于声发射智能监测技术 ,对玲珑金矿 2 5 5m水平坚硬岩石复合材料支护的主运巷采空区结构失稳过程进行了实时监测 ,利用固体断裂非平衡统计理论进行统计推断 ,分析采空区围岩断裂失稳过程中微破裂的时空演化规律以及变形与声发射间的内在联系 ,同时在统计分析过程中考虑了不同因素对围岩破裂过程与失稳模式的影响 ,这对于工程安全监测与评价有很大的现实意义。     

桥梁拉索损伤声发射监测及其临界损伤判断

通过拉伸试验,得到了钢绞线整个损伤过程的声发射特征参数,测试结果表明：采用计数、能量、持续时间、幅值和时间的相关点图来综合表征损伤,不但可以跟踪全过程损伤,而且还可以准确判断出断丝信号和非断丝信号以及断丝位置,并发现钢绞线在屈服变形之前,声发射特征参数并不明显,屈服阶段之后,声发射的特征参数逐渐增大,在临近断裂时,声发射特征参数迅速增大。最后采用声发射特征参数时间序列分形理论研究了钢绞线的损伤演化规律,在加载初中期,分形维数变化不大,当钢绞线裂纹进入快速扩展阶段,分形维数出现“最大-最小”变化模式,运用此模式可为钢绞线临界损伤破坏提供一个新的判据。     

单轴压缩下岩石尺寸效应声发射特性数值模拟

采用RFPA2D软件对6组不同高径比的岩石试样进行单轴压缩下的数值模拟,研究了尺寸效应对岩石强度及其破坏过程中声发射特性的影响,指出岩石的破坏过程大致可以分为五个阶段。     

单轴压缩下非贯通节理岩体损伤破坏能量演化机制研究

能量的积聚与释放伴随发生在节理岩体受荷变形全过程。为探寻加载过程中节理岩体能量演化规律,基于单轴压缩试验及岩石能量原理,研究非贯通节理岩体变形破坏过程中总能量U、弹性应变能U~e及耗散能U~d的转化特征,揭示节理岩体损伤破坏能量演化机制,建立了基于弹性能耗比变化率(dK/dε)的非贯通节理岩体裂缝扩展及强度失效准则。研究表明:节理存在对岩体中能量的存储具有明显的削弱作用,峰值点总能量与弹性应变能随节理数量的增加逐渐减小;节理岩体的弹性应变能U~e及耗散能U~d变化曲线存在"阶梯状"突减或突增,双节理岩样弹性应变能和耗散能突增或突减的数值明显小于单节理岩样;峰前与峰后阶段弹性能耗比变化率发生连续突变(dK/dε正负交替变换)与突变(dK/dε保持为正无穷)作为节理岩体裂缝扩展及强度失效判据。     

冻结盐渍土三轴剪切试验过程中的损伤及压融分析

三轴剪切过程中损伤及压融等力学性质对冻结盐渍土的强度及变形影响显著。通过对-15℃德令哈含盐砂土进行一系列的三轴剪切循环试验及CT扫描试验,分析冻结盐渍土在三轴试验过程中的损伤演化以及压融量变化规律。研究发现,在三轴剪切中损伤变量随静水压力的变化而改变,在本文条件下当静水压力在1~12 MPa之间时,损伤变量随围压的增加而增加,当静水压力超过12 MPa时,损伤变量反而呈现减小趋势。同时,定义压融阈值p_s以及压融量达到最大值时对应的静水压力值p_m,研究表明:当静水压力小于p_s时,试样内部几乎不存在压融现象;当静水压力大于p_s且小于p_m时试验内部的压融量可用二次函数描述;当静水压力超过p_m时,试样中的压融量达到最大值λ_m,且压融极值点与损伤变量极值点对应的静水压力值基本一致。     

岩石三轴压缩任意围压下应力–应变曲线的预测方法研究

岩石三轴压缩试验中通常只做有限种围压情况下的压缩试验,得到的应力–应变曲线只是岩石在具体围压下本构关系的表现,限制了通过拟合应力–应变曲线得到岩石本构的实用性。认为不同围压下的应力–应变曲线虽然形状差别较大,但都是同种岩石所表现出来的特性,曲线间蕴含着一定联系。对此进行了研究,并提出一套基于有限种围压情况下的应力–应变曲线预测任意围压下应力–应变曲线的方法。通过实例,说明所提方法的可行性。     

Quantitative analysis of fracture process in RC column foundation by moment tensor analysis of acoustic emission

After the great Hanshin earthquake, numerous studies have been made to evaluate damage levels, toughness and deformation characteristics of reinforced concrete (RC) columns exposed to the earthquake shock. In the present study, RC columns are subjected to simulated seismic lateral loading under different axial loads. Acoustic emission (AE) is monitored to characterize the seismic behavior of column foundation. AE is shown to be very sensitive to detect cracks generated in the foundation. An AE moment tensor analysis is applied to analyze the fracture process quantitatively. Experimental results demonstrate different fracture behavior, depending on the different axial loads. It is also shown that the moment tensor analysis is very useful for quantitative evaluation of the fracture process.     

Post-erosion mechanical responses of internally unstable gap-graded soil under drained torsional simple shear and triaxial compression

Internal erosion is a major threat to hydraulic earth structures, such as river levees and dams. This paper focuses on suffusion and suffosion phenomena which are caused by the movement of fine particles in the granular skeleton due to seepage flow. The present study investigates the impact of internal erosion on the dynamic response under cyclic torsional shear and monotonic responses under triaxial compression and torsional simple shear. A series of experiments, using a gap-graded silica mixture with a fines content of 20%, is performed under loose, medium, and dense conditions using a novel erosion hollow cylindrical torsional shear apparatus. The erosion test results indicate that the critical hydraulic gradient and the rate of erosion are density-dependent, where a transition from suffosion to suffusion is observed as the seepage continues. Regardless of the sample density, variations in the radial strain and particle size distribution, along the specimen height after erosion, are no longer uniform. Furthermore, the dynamic shearing results show that the small-strain shear modulus increases, but the initial damping ratio decreases after internal erosion, probably due to the removal of free fines. In addition, the elastic threshold strain and reference shear strain values are found to be higher for the eroded and non-eroded specimens, respectively. Finally, based on drained monotonic loading, the post-erosion peak stress ratio increases remarkably under triaxial compression, while that under torsional simple shear depends on the relative density where the direction of loading is normal to the direction of seepage. These observations indicate that the horizontal bedding plane becomes weaker, while the vertical one becomes stronger after downward erosion.     

Application of autocorrelation analysis for interpreting acoustic emission in rock

The statistical properties of acoustic emission from rock samples were studied as a function of applied uniaxial load. It was found that the parameters of the autocorrelation function of the acoustic emission event series change significantly near failure. An increase in the values of the autocorrelation coefficients and a tendency to a linear decrease with time were observed. We propose that the increasing autocorrelation of the acoustic emission series is an evidence of the increased affect that the individual acoustic emission sources have on one another. This mutual effect of acoustic events arises as a result of the redistribution of stress in the sample during the fracturing process at higher loads (more than 95% of ultimate strength). The results support the possibility of using autocorrelation analysis as a failure warning sign or even to predict the sample's total failure. Different rock materials and various loading patterns were used to generalise the results obtained.     

Acoustic emission characterization of microcracking in laboratory-scale hydraulic fracturing tests

Understanding microcracking near coalesced fracture generation is critically important for hydrocarbon and geothermal reservoir characterization as well as damage evaluation in civil engineering structures. Dense and sometimes random microcracking near coalesced fracture formation alters the mechanical properties of the nearby virgin material. Individual microcrack characterization is also significant in quantifying the material changes near the fracture faces (i.e. damage). Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring and analysis provide unique information regarding the microcracking process temporally, and information concerning the source characterization of individual microcracks can be extracted. In this context, laboratory hydraulic fracture tests were carried out while monitoring the AEs from several piezoelectric transducers. In-depth post-processing of the AE event data was performed for the purpose of understanding the individual source mechanisms. Several source characterization techniques including moment tensor inversion, event parametric analysis, and volumetric deformation analysis were adopted. Post-test fracture characterization through coring, slicing and micro-computed tomographic imaging was performed to determine the coalesced fracture location and structure. Distinct differences in fracture characteristics were found spatially in relation to the openhole injection interval. Individual microcrack AE analysis showed substantial energy reduction emanating spatially from the injection interval. It was quantitatively observed that the recorded AE signals provided sufficient information to generalize the damage radiating spatially away from the injection wellbore.     

单轴加载条件下花岗岩声发射及波传播特性研究

 采用声波、声发射一体化装置,研究单轴压缩下花岗岩波速与声发射演化规律,通过宏细观方法确定各应力门槛值,研究裂纹扩展不同阶段声发射演化及波传播规律。结果表明：细观裂纹的演化与宏观变形直接对应,由于微裂纹主要沿轴向扩展,导致轴向刚度对裂纹起裂及贯通的敏感度弱于非线性增长的侧向变形,瞬时泊松比曲线斜率变化点与应力门槛值对应,声发射测试确定的起裂应力比宏观应变法偏小,但反映了微裂纹的初始萌生;采用实测波速变化分析声发射震源的时空及幅值演化分布,较好地描绘了裂纹的扩展过程,由于不同阶段声发射信号的幅值及能量存在差异,导致声发射特征参数演化规律差异较大(尤其在损伤应力之后),AE能量在破坏前呈突发性增长,可作为灾害性破坏的前兆;加载初始阶段,由于微裂隙的闭合,波速及波幅均随应力逐渐增大,但增加速率逐渐下降,侧向波速在闭合应力附近基本达到峰值,此后一定阶段基本保持不变,但其他方向波速则继续增大,随着波传播方向与径向夹角的增大,波速增加幅度及波速下降点对应的应力(损伤应力前、后)逐渐增大,峰值应力附近对应波速下降幅度减小;波速受损伤演化的影响要滞后于声发射事件。     

爆炸载荷作用下岩石损伤破裂过程的数值分析

探讨了JWL爆源模型与朗道模型、应变强度分布模型与应变软化模型的异同点,并在CDEM源程序中引入了JWL爆源模型及应变强度分布模型。利用改进的CDEM程序研究了爆炸载荷作用下岩石损伤破裂的物理过程,重点分析了压碎区、破损区比半径及总破裂度随岩石应变强度的变化规律。研究发现：①最大应变强度是控制岩石破裂范围的关键量,最大应变强度从0.5%增加至5%,压碎区比半径从37降至4,破损区比半径从45降至12,岩石总破裂度从55%降至5%;②相同应变强度情况下,岩石更容易发生剪切破坏,剪切破坏产生的破坏区域的比半径较拉伸破坏产生的大2~5,总破裂度大3%左右;③拉伸破坏为主导（拉伸应变强度主控）,破损区的裂缝将沿着径向平直发展;剪切破坏为主导（剪切应变强度主控）,破损区的裂缝将弧状向外扩展。