Reappraisal of the relationship between noise and human performance by means of a subsidiary task measure.

Investigated the notion that where demands imposed by the task and concurrent environmental stress are within the operator's total information-handling capacity, the task can be performed substantially without errors. For performance degradation to occur, the operator's channel capacity must be exceeded. It was assumed that unpredictable noise in combination with multiple task performance would result in such an overload, whereas the introduction of predictable noise would not have such an effect. Ss were 23 undergraduates. A subsidiary task method consisting of the delayed recall of randomly presented digits was used to measure overload. As expected, the use of unpredictable, as opposed to predictable noise resulted in performance degradation on the subsidiary task. Performance on the primary task was unaffected by either type of noise. It is concluded that results reflect a reduction in spare mental capacity as a function of the aversiveness of the noise stressor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monitoring the information-processing demands of attention switching.

Examined demands on information-processing capacity in 3 experiments with 48 Ss by combining auditory digit-tasks involving attention switching with the secondary task of pursuit tracking. Secondary task scores in 2 experiments were lower for tracking segments involving signalled switches between digit-tasks and between input channels, respectively. These results could not be accounted for by a trade-off between digit-task and tracking performance. When the attended channel was defined by voice quality in a 3rd experiment, tracking performance was not affected by switches between input channels. A comparison of the present results and those of related studies indicates that switching attention per se between input channels does not constitute the primary demand for central processing capacity in dichotic tasks. The increased demand appears to be related instead to the concomitant changes required in the input processing and to the processing of signals to switch the focus of attention. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in perceptual information processing and their relation to automobile accident involvement.

Used a perceptual-information-processing model of driver decision making as a framework to select and devise predictors of accident involvement. 75 commercial drivers were tested in a driving simulator and were given the Embedded Figures Test, Selective Attention Test, and rod-and-frame test. The predictors of field dependence, selective attention, and complex reaction time significantly related to accident involvement. Initial, simple, and choice reaction time did not relate to accident rate. The visual measures of field dependence and the auditory measure of selective attention were related in the predicted direction, with the field-independent drivers making fewer errors in selective perception. This finding lends support to the importance of the further development of an information-processing model of the driving task. Since evidence is accumulating that stable individual differences in information processing relate to accident involvement, consideration should be given to devising techniques to develop these skills. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting individual differences in complex skill acquisition: Dynamics of ability determinants.

Addresses the controvervesy about ability determinants of individual differences in performance during and subsequent to skill acquisition. An information-processing examination of ability–performance relations during complex task acquisition is described. Included are ability testing (including general, reasoning, spatial, perceptual speed, and perceptual/psychomotor abilities) and skill acquisition over practice on the terminal radar approach controller simulation. Results validate and extend P. L. Ackerman's (1988) theory of cognitive ability determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition. Benefits of ability component and task component analyses over global analyses of ability–skill relations are demonstrated. Implications are discussed for selection instruments to predict air traffic controller success and for other tasks with inconsistent information-processing demands. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Span of apprehension and arousal in schizophrenia.

Investigated the relationship between levels of somatic arousal, autonomic reactivity, and visual information processing in 32 schizophrenic and 16 normal Ss. Span of apprehension for tachistoscopically presented consonants was measured over 80 trials and skin conductance level (SCL) and heart rate (HR) were monitored during rest and performance. An information-processing deficiency in the schizophrenic Ss was interpreted as related to perceptual rather than mnemonic factors. Individual differences in level of arousal (SCL and HR) were not systematically related to information-processing efficiency in schizophrenic or normal Ss. Correlations between span and change in arousal level suggested that autonomic flexibility enhanced information-processing efficiency in both groups. Amplitude of stimulus-specific autonomic reactivity in normal Ss was more specifically modulated to the attention response demands of the task. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information-processing demands of transitive inference.

Investigated the information-processing demands of transitive inference problems with a probe reaction-time (RT) secondary task. Two versions of a primary task were used: the standard 3-term inference problem and a matched verification task that did not require premise integration. In the 1st 2 experiments, with a total of 40 undergraduates, the premise and target-matching components of the primary task were presented sequentially. Results indicate that for the transitive inference task, probe RT was especially slow when the probe occurred during the 2nd premise phase, but no such effect was found with the matched verification task. This implies that premise integration imposed an increased load on processing resources. A 3rd experiment with 10 undergraduates showed that the processing demand associated with premise integration also occurred with simultaneous presentation. Other variations in problem form (e.g., premise markedness, negation, and pivot search) did not influence probe RT, although they are known to affect solution time. It is concluded that solution time and measures of processing load may be independent. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusory correlation in clinical judgment: Effects of amount of information to be processed.

Investigated the relationship between the amount of information to be processed in a judgment task and the reporting of illusory correlations. 130 undergraduate judges were assigned to 1 of 4 groups that differed in information-processing loads. Ss' reports of cue clinical problem relationships on the judgment task (Draw-A-Person test drawings) were evaluated for correct observations and for illusory correlations. As predicted, correct observations decreased and reports of illusory correlation increased as the information-processing load increased. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The stop sign is for the other guy: A naturalistic observation of driving behavior of Nigerians.

Examined the effects of 2 types of stop signs on driving behaviors of private car and commercial vehicle drivers. The Ss were 1,211 male and female Nigerian university students whose driving behaviors were observed as they drove through a complex –T junction. Trained observers recorded how well each driver conformed with the demands of standard traffic regulations. Results show that (a) private car drivers conformed more to traffic regulations than did drivers of commercial vehicles, and (b) drivers who obeyed stop signs tended to make turn signals. Installation of more traffic signs on Nigerian roads and the education of drivers (especially commercial vehicle drivers) as to the specific demands of such traffic signs are advocated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working-memory-triggered dynamic adjustments in cognitive control.

Dynamic adjustments in cognitive control are well documented in conflict tasks, wherein competition from irrelevant stimulus attributes intensifies selection demands and leads to subsequent performance benefits. The current study investigated whether mnemonic demands, in a working memory (WM) task, can drive similar online control modifications. Demand levels (high vs. low) of WM maintenance (memory load of 2 items vs. 1 item) and delay-spanning distractor interference (confusable vs. not confusable with memoranda) were manipulated using a factorial design during a WM delayed-recognition task. Performance was best subsequent to trials in which both maintenance and distractor interference demands were high, followed by trials with high demand in either of these 2 control domains, and worst following trials with low demand in both domains. These results suggest that dynamic adjustments in cognitive control are not triggered exclusively by conflict-specific contexts but are also triggered by WM demands, revealing a putative mechanism by which this system configures itself for successful task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dilution, not load, affects distractor processing.

Lavie and Tsal (1994) proposed that spare attentional capacity is allocated involuntarily to the processing of irrelevant stimuli, thereby enabling interference. Under this view, when task demands increase, spare capacity should decrease and distractor interference should decrease. In support, Lavie and Cox (1997) found that increasing perceptual load by increasing search set size decreased interference from an irrelevant distractor. In three experiments, we manipulated the cue set size (number of cued locations) independently of the display set size (number of letters presented). Increasing the display set size reduced distractor interference regardless of whether the additional letters were relevant to the task. In contrast, increasing the cue set size increased distractor interference. Both findings are inconsistent with the load explanation, but are consistent with a proposed two-stage dilution account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and ineffective test taking: Different names, same construct?

Investigated the relative contributions of test anxiety and exam-taking skills to information-processing deficits in a dual-task paradigm. Under stress instructions, 64 high- and low-test-anxious college students with either good or poor exam-taking skills alternately performed a primary task (Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices) separately and concurrently with a secondary task (a backward digit span test). Results indicate that exam-skilled, high-anxious Ss performed comparably with skilled, low-anxious peers on the primary Raven task, yet significantly worse on the concurrent backward digit span task. Conversely, high-anxious, unskilled Ss were exceeded by low-anxious, unskilled peers on both tasks. Findings suggest that test anxiety and exam-taking ability independently influence cognitive problem solving in the evaluative setting. It is suggested that although good exam skills can compensate for anxiety-induced deficits in working-memory capacity by refocusing attention toward the task, processing deficits still emerge as task demands increase. Measures of state anxiety and cognitive interference further suggest that a negative internal focus, not arousal, underlies such deficits. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of attention in implicit learning.

Previous research has shown that implicit learning of a serial pattern in a reaction time (RT) task is eliminated or reduced when the task is performed concurrently with a tone-counting task. These results led to the inference that implicit learning requires attentional capacity. Two experiments tested the alternative hypothesis that the tone-counting task disrupts learning by preventing consistent organization of the sequence. The tone-counting condition was compared with a condition with additional attentional demands, but no disruption of organization, and with a condition with no additional attentional demands, but disruption of organization. The results were consistent with the organizational hypothesis. It is argued that learning depends on practicing consistently organized runs of trials, that shifts of attention may determine how the runs are organized, and that the relation between attention and learning depends more on organization and intention than on capacity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working memory costs of task switching.

Although many accounts of task switching emphasize the importance of working memory as a substantial source of the switch cost, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating that task switching actually places additional demands on working memory. The present study addressed this issue by implementing task switching in continuous complex span tasks with strictly controlled time parameters. A series of 4 experiments demonstrate that recall performance decreased as a function of the number of task switches and that the concurrent load of item maintenance had no influence on task switching. These results indicate that task switching induces a cost on working memory functioning. Implications for theories of task switching, working memory, and resource sharing are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A field study of stress and fatigue in long-distance bus drivers

Psychophysiological changes during long-distance driving may be associated with driving fatigue and morbidity. Measures of stress and arousal, including heart rate, blood pressure, catecholamines, cortisol, state anxiety, and self-ratings of stress and arousal were collected from 10 long-distance bus drivers during 12-hour driving shifts and at matched times on nondriving rest days. Cardiovascular and catecholamine data were elevated across the entire work day, compared with rest days. Self-reported stress and state anxiety were elevated only at the preshift measure, and these elevations were interpreted as the result of anticipatory anxiety and additional work demands at the beginning of the shift. Decelerating activation from the 9th to the 12th hours of driving were reflected in slower heart rate and lower subjective arousal ratings. Suggested explanations for these findings are that drivers experience a release of tension when they anticipate the end of the shift and therefore deactivation is a signal or precursor to the onset of fatigue in physiological adjustment mechanisms.     

Characteristics of two groups of angry drivers.

High anger drivers acknowledging problems with driving anger and interest in counseling (high anger/problem [HP] drivers) were compared with high and low anger drivers not acknowledging problems with driving anger and seeking counseling (high and low/nonproblem [HNP and LNP, respectively] drivers). High anger groups reported more anger while driving; aggressive expression of driving anger; aggression and risky behavior; trait anger; impulsiveness; and aggressive, less controlled forms of general anger expression and less adaptive/constructive coping than LNP drivers. HP drivers received more tickets and experienced more minor accidents than LNP drivers. Although high anger drivers did not differ on reported anger, risky behavior, and impulsiveness, HP drives reported greater aggression on 1 measure, greater aggressiveness on 3 measures of driving anger expression, greater trait anger, and more aggressive and less controlled forms of general anger expression, suggesting HP drivers are somewhat more aggressive than the HNP group. Results supported the state-trait model of anger. Implications for intervention were drawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simulated driving performance of adults with ADHD: Comparisons with alcohol intoxication.

Previous research has demonstrated that adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are more likely to experience driving-related problems, which suggests that they may exhibit poorer driving performance. However, direct experimental evidence of this hypothesis is limited. The current study involved 2 experiments that evaluated driving performance in adults with ADHD in terms of the types of driving decrements typically associated with alcohol intoxication. Experiment 1 compared the simulated driving performance of 15 adults with ADHD to 23 adult control participants, who performed the task both while sober and intoxicated. Results showed that sober adults with ADHD exhibited decrements in driving performance compared to sober controls, and that the profile of impairment for the sober ADHD group did in fact resemble that of intoxicated drivers at the blood alcohol concentration level for legally impaired driving in the United States. Driving impairment of the intoxicated individuals was characterized by greater deviation of lane position, faster and more abrupt steering maneuvers, and increased speed variability. Experiment 2 was a dose-challenge study in which 8 adults with ADHD and 8 controls performed the driving simulation task under 3 doses of alcohol: 0.65g/kg, 0.45g/kg, and 0.0g/kg (placebo). Results showed that driving performance in both groups was impaired in response to alcohol, and that individuals with ADHD exhibited generally poorer driving performance than did controls across all dose conditions. Together the findings provide compelling evidence to suggest that the cognitive and behavioral deficits associated with ADHD might impair driving performance in such a manner as to resemble that of an alcohol intoxicated driver. Moreover, alcohol might impair the performance of drivers with ADHD in an additive fashion that could considerably compromise their driving skill even at blood alcohol concentrations below the legal limit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Random number generation as an index of controlled processing.

Random number generation (RNG) is a functionally complex process that is highly controlled and therefore dependent on Baddeley's central executive. This study addresses this issue by investigating whether key predictions from this framework are compatible with empirical data. In Experiment 1, the effect of increasing task demands by increasing the rate of the paced generation was comprehensively examined. As expected, faster rates affected performance negatively because central resources were increasingly depleted. Next, the effects of participants' exposure were manipulated in Experiment 2 by providing increasing amounts of practice on the task. There was no improvement over 10 practice trials, suggesting that the high level of strategic control required by the task was constant and not amenable to any automatization gain with repeated exposure. Together, the results demonstrate that RNG performance is a highly controlled and demanding process sensitive to additional demands on central resources (Experiment 1) and is unaffected by repeated performance or practice (Experiment 2). These features render the easily administered RNG task an ideal and robust index of executive function that is highly suitable for repeated clinical use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of efficient arithmetic computation.

The developing efficiency of simple arithmetic computations using dual reaction-time (RT) tasks was studied. The primary task of true–false verification of 2-term addition problems and the secondary task of auditory probe detection provided measures of the processing demands of encoding, computation, comparison, decision, and response stages of the addition process. Developmental shifts in the efficiency with which 2nd, 4th, and 6th graders and college adults computed answers to these problems were found. The dual task demands exceeded the processing resources of 2nd graders throughout all stages of the addition process; increasing processing efficiency was demonstrated by 4th and 6th graders, and for college Ss some information-processing costs were associated with both early and later stages of the addition process. These costs were attributable to resources other than those required by general alertness factors and structural demands of the dual tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition.

Two central constructs of applied psychology, motivation and cognitive ability, were integrated within an information-processing (IPR) framework. This framework simultaneously considers individual differences in cognitive abilities, self-regulatory processes of motivation, and IPR demands. Evidence for the framework is provided in the context of skill acquisition, in which IPR and ability demands change as a function of practice, training paradigm, and timing of goal setting (GS). Three field-based lab experiments were conducted with 1,010 US Air Force trainees. Exp 1 evaluated the basic ability–performance parameters of the air traffic controller task and GS effects early in practice. Exp 2 evaluated GS later in practice. Exp 3 investigated the simultaneous effects of training content, GS and ability–performance interactions. Results support the theoretical framework and have implications for notions of ability–motivation interactions and design of training and motivation programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional requirements of automatic and controlled processing.

The attentional demands of automatic and controlled processing were investigated in a dual task paradigm. Ss performed consistent and varied mapping versions of an S. Sternberg (see record 1966-10810-001) memory search task, both separately and together with a recognition running-memory task. In different conditions, Ss were instructed to maximize their performance on either the Sternberg or running memory tasks or to emphasize the tasks equally. Processing priority and memory load had large effects on performance when the variably mapped version of the Sternberg task was paired with the running memory task. Performance decrements in these conditions were accompanied by trade-offs in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential, presumably reflecting the distribution of attention between the tasks. Performance in the consistently mapped version of the Sternberg task was relatively unaffected by memory load or dual task demands. Large P300s, which were insensitive to manipulations of memory load and priority, were elicited in the consistently mapped conditions. These P300s appear to reflect the obligatory allocation of attention to task-relevant events during automatic processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)