Effect of instructions and modeling on self-disclosure.

Examined the relative effectiveness of modeling and instructional procedures in training college students to self-disclose. 48 male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of the following instructional conditions: specific instructions to discuss personal feelings within specified topic areas, general instructions to discuss personal feelings within the same topics, or no instructions. Half of the Ss also listened to a model discussing his feelings within identical topic areas, and half did not receive a model. All Ss then participated in a brief monologue, which was scored for self-disclosure. Instructions and modeling, alone and in combination, increased the occurrence of self-disclosure, but the performance of the combination condition was not significantly greater than the performance of modeling or instructions alone. A post hoc analysis showed the instructional effect was due to the difference between specific instructions and no instructions. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Timing of self-disclosure, reciprocity of self-disclosure, and reactions to an initial interview.

Interviewed 54 college females individually for 40 min about how they were influenced by friends, family, and persons in authority. The interviewer disclosed experiences, attitudes, and beliefs similar and dissimilar to those revealed by the S 0, 4, or 12 times during the interview. Such disclosures occurred prior to (modeling situation) or immediately after (reinforcement situation) S disclosures. An intermediate number of disclosures resulted in significantly more S disclosures and led to the interviewer's being described as significantly more empathic, warm, and congruent. Timing of interviewer disclosures had no effect. Results suggest that an intermediate level of interviewer self-disclosure may best initiate reciprocity of disclosure, which in turn can lead to more positive reactions to the interviewer. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling of self-disclosure in laboratory and nonlaboratory interview settings.

The effect of a model on Ss' willingness to engage in self-disclosure was examined in both laboratory and nonlaboratory settings. In each of the settings, 15 male and 15 female undergraduates were used as Ss. Results show that Ss exposed to a high-disclosing model were significantly more willing to engage in self-disclosure than were those exposed to a low-disclosing model. While disclosure levels did not differ in the 2 settings for Ss exposed to a model, Ss not exposed to a model were more willing to engage in disclosure in the laboratory than in a nonlaboratory setting. Results are discussed in terms of social exchange and modeling theories. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Similarity self-disclosure and return for a second interview.

Individually interviewed 50 male undergraduates for 20 min about procedures used in confronting decision-making situations. The interviewer disclosed experiences, attitudes, and feelings similar to those revealed by the students 0, 2, 4, 8, or 12 times during the interviews. An intermediate number of interviewer self-disclosures resulted in significantly more students returning for a 2nd interview than did few or many self-disclosures. Results suggest that the use of a moderate number of interviewer self-disclosures may be an effective means of increasing counselor attractiveness and client approach responses to the counselor. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of induced elation-depression on speech in the initial interview.

Examined the relationship between induced mood states of elation or depression and interviewee verbal behavior. Affective states were manipulated through the use of an autosuggestion technique (mood induction procedure; MIP). Ss were 45 female college students, ages 17-23, assigned to 1 of 3 treatment conditions: elation, depression, or neutral mood induction. Data consisted of 15 telephone dialogues elicited by an automated initial interview in each of the 3 mood conditions, with the MIP occurring midway in the interview. Criterion measures indicated that the MIP did successfully produce authentic emotional responses in the interviewee; postinterview questioning revealed that the interviewees did not discern the automated nature of the interviewer. Elation was found to evoke shorter response latencies, faster speech and articulation rates, and fewer silent pauses (2 sec or longer) than in a control group. Depression was positively related to silent pauses. Findings are discussed in terms of previous psycholinguistic research on the "cognitive" role of speech timing. (1 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety and speech in the initial interview.

Presents the 2nd experimental investigation in a series dealing with the relationship between anxiety arousal and interviewee verbal behavior. In an earlier experimental study, anxiety was manipulated through the use of a neutral topic and an anxiety-arousing topic. However, it was felt that the anxiety-arousing effects of the 2 topics could have been confounded with content effects. To avoid this possible confounding, the present study was designed to manipulate anxiety in the interview without altering topic. Basic results confirm those of the 1st study, i.e., anxiety functions as an activator of speech increasing productivity, simultaneously disrupting its flow by increasing the frequency of speech disturbances. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual level and structure on initial interview behavior.

Assessed the impact of the conceptual level matching model within a counseling situation. A 2–3 randomized block design was used to compare the effects of matching counselee conceptual level (CL) to counselor-offered degree of structure in a 40-min initial interview analogue. Two treatment levels of counselor structure (low and high) were crossed with 2 blocks of undergraduates (24 low-CLs and 24 high-CLs) and 2 interviewers. It was predicted that matched persons (low CL, high structure; high CL, low structure) would respond better than mismatched persons (low CL, low structure; high CL, high structure). The high-CL matching predictions recieved a significant degree of support in expressions of self-awareness and satisfaction. The low-CL matching predictions received a significant degree of support in the areas of satisfaction and ratings of counselor helpfulness. Use of different behavioral outcomes and a flexible counseling style are stressed. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social modeling, cognitive structuring, and self-management strategies on affective self-disclosure.

Assessed immediate and delayed effects of social modeling, cognitive structuring, and 2 self-management strategies for increasing affective self-disclosure in 48 undergraduate males. Ss were randomly assigned to (a) social modeling, (b) cognitive structuring, (c) attention placebo, or (d) no-training control groups. Following training, Ss took a performance test and 2 pencil-and-paper measures. With this treatment used as a blocking variable, Ss were then randomly assigned to (a) goal-directed behavior, (b) self-reinforcement, or (c) no-training control groups. A delayed posttest was administered 3 wks later. Results indicate that social modeling and cognitive structuring had immediate effects on affective self-disclosure. Also, a combination of social learning and self-management strategies was more effective over time than any single treatment or no treatment at all. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, instructions, and verbal conditioning on self-referenced affect in a counseling interview.

Examined the relationships between locus of control, specificity of instruction, and verbal conditionability on self-referenced affect in a counseling analog interview. 118 female undergraduates were administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. On the basis of scores tabulated for H. L. Mirels's factor of personal internality, 40 Ss were classified as internals or externals and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: general instructions or specific instructions. All Ss then participated in an interview with a counselor. The interview was divided into 3 sections: baseline, conditioning, and extinction. During the conditioning period, the counselor verbalized self-referenced affect and reflection of feeling on a 2-min interval schedule. Results indicate that specific instructions combined with verbal conditioning procedures produced the greatest increase in self-referenced affect for both internal and external Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to the directive and instigational functions of instructions on internal/external Ss. Implications for future research are outlined. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of modeling and experiential procedures for self-disclosure training.

Attempted (a) to adapt and implement an interpersonal-skills training paradigm for training married individuals to exhibit increased self-disclosive behavior in their marital relationships, and (b) to determine the efficacy of experiential and modeling procedures in such training. 27 university-affiliated married couples (mean age 24.5 yrs, mean length of marriage 3.1 yrs) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: a communication-skills training group, a modeling group, and a control group. Frequency, duration, and quality of self-disclosive behavior were analyzed for pre- to posttraining changes by means of the Hill Interaction Matrix and the Facilitative Self-Disclosure Scale. Results indicate that (a) the communication-skills training group demonstrated a significant increase on 4 of the 5 self-disclosure measures, (b) the modeling group demonstrated an increase on 3 of the self-disclosure variables, and (c) the controls did not change on any of the variables. Implications of integrating both modeling and experiential methods into interpersonal-skills training programs are discussed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of counselor attire in an initial interview.

Examined the effect of counselor attire on clients' state anxiety, willingness to self-disclose, and preference to be counseled by the counselor seen in the study. Clients were 50 female undergraduates seen at an initial interview, and counselors were 3 male doctoral students in counseling psychology. Counselor attire was fixed at 3 levels: traditional (coat and tie), casual (sport shirt and slacks), and highly casual (sweat shirt and jeans). Clients experienced significantly lower anxiety with counselors in casual vs highly casual attire, although no differences emerged between traditionally and casually attired counselors. Client report of her own typical dress was a crucial moderator. Those whose attire was typically casual manifested the most positive reaction to traditionally attired counselors, whereas those whose dress was typically highly casual exhibited the most positive reaction to casually attired counselors. Contrary to expectation, client dogmatism did not moderate the effects of attire on the dependent variables. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex and intimacy level on self-disclosure.

The reciprocity hypothesis was investigated within a sex-pairing counseling context using a role-play paradigm. 60 male and 60 female undergraduates exchanged written self-disclosures with an unseen counselor who disclosed items of low, medium, or high intimacy. Results strongly support the reciprocity effect and indicate that females are more willing to disclose than males. Specific suggestions for future research are offered. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor trainee anxiety during the initial counseling interview.

Investigated the nature and extent of anxiety experienced by beginning practicum students in their initial client interviews. Ss were 20 of 21 students enrolled in a master's level course in supervised counseling experience. Anxiety was assessed by self-report, skin conductance, and heart rate measures obtained in anticipation of and during stimulus situations of reading an article and counseling a client. The design was a 2–2 (Periods?×?Sessions) within-Ss factorial. Results indicate that Ss were more anxious on physiological and self-report measures of anxiety during the counseling interview than during reading. Although most of the self-report data were not related to autonomic arousal during the interview, baseline autonomic data were highly related to autonomic response during the interview. Also, self-report predictions of anxiety were related to self-report anxiety during the interview. It is concluded that (a) the counseling interview is an anxiety-evoking situation, (b) much of the anxiety can be accounted for by Ss' expectations, and (c) anxiety is most meaningfully discussed within the framework of response dimensions. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of proximity on anxiety and communication in the initial psychiatric interview.

Based on E. T. Hall's categories for interpersonal distance and social interaction, a study was designed to determine whether physical distance between outpatients (n = 60) and therapists (n = 4) would affect patient behavior in the initial psychiatric interview. Interviews were conducted at 3 ft (Hall's personal distance, far phase), 6 ft (social distance, near phase), and 9 ft (social distance, far phase). Results show that patient speech disturbance ratio, a measure of concurrent anxiety, increased with increased distance. At a distance of 9 ft, patients reported they did not get their point across as well, and there was a trend for them to feel they had been unclear. Patients talked more about their fears and anxieties and tended to report themselves as having been more open at the 6-ft distance. Possible psychological processes involved are discussed, along with Hall's theory of social expectations and M. Argyle and J. Dean's approach-avoidance theory of social interaction. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and modeling on trainees low in interpersonal-communication skills.

Examined the effects of instructions and modeling in the reflection-of-feeling training of individuals low in interpersonal-communication skills. Participants with low scores on R. Carkhuff's Communication Index (25 males and 25 females) were randomly assigned by sex to 1 of the 5 training groups so that there were 5 males and 5 females in each group. After viewing videotaped training material, each participant conducted a 15-min interview with a volunteer "client" and completed the Communication Index a second time. Interviews were scored for frequency of reflection-of-feeling responses and level of empathic communication displayed. Analysis of the reflection-of-feeling data indicated that instructions and instructions-plus-modeling were facilitative procedures. Ratings of written and verbal empathy demonstrated the effectiveness of the 2 combined conditions: instructions-plus-modeling and modeling-plus-instructions. Calculation of correlations among scores on criterion measures revealed a positive correlation between reflection-of-feeling scores and ratings of empathic communication. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)