The student as Pygmalion: Effect of student expectation on the teacher.

Two experiments examined the possibility that student expectations regarding a teacher's competence can be communicated to the teacher and bring about the expected behavior. In Exp I, 39 female undergraduates acting as students were administered a lesson by a teacher (confederate) who the students expected to be either effective or ineffective. Results show significant differences in student attitudes, performance, and nonverbal behavior according to expectation. In Exp II, confederates acting as students emitted either positive or negative nonverbal behavior toward 40 female undergraduates acting as their teachers. There were significant effects on teachers' attitudes and behavior. Moreover, ratings of the teacher by judges showed teachers were rated as being more adequate under conditions of positive student nonverbal behavior than negative nonverbal behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluation of the effects of feedback associated with a problem-solving approach to instruction on teacher and student behavior.

Conducted 2 experiments with 36 nonpermanently certified teachers to determine if feedback related to problem-solving competencies would result in changes in both teacher and student behavior. Results of Exp I (36 Ss) indicate that teachers who received in-class feedback for 2 specific teacher competencies were more effective than control teachers in (a) controlling their own behavior, and (b) reducing learner inattention. Results of Exp II (21 Ss) indicate that teachers who received in-class feedback for a 3rd specific teacher competency were more effective than control teachers as measured by their abilities (a) to attempt to diagnose more often, (b) to employ appropriate diagnostic procedures, and (c) to assist students ultimately in mastering previously missed questions. Thus, both experiments demonstrate that predicted changes in teacher and student behavior occur if teachers receive feedback associated with a problem-solving approach to instruction. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher judgments concerning the acceptability of school-based interventions.

Investigated the influence of behavior problem severity, interventionist, and modality of case presentation on teacher's judgments of school-based interventions. 54 regular and special education teachers attending a university summer course used an intervention scale and the Semantic Differential to rate all possible combinations of 2 interventions (principal or teacher implemented) applied to 2 behavior problems (daydreaming and destruction of others' property). Ss read about or viewed a videotape of a 5th-grade boy engaging in 1 of the 2 problem behaviors. An ANOVA of Ss' ratings of intervention acceptability showed that behavior problem severity and interventionist significantly affected Ss' judgments of intervention acceptability. Findings show that interventions that could be implemented by the teacher were more acceptable. In addition, Ss rated interventions as more acceptable when applied to behavior problems of greater severity. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions for school-related problems: Teacher perceptions and teacher feedback.

Conducted 2 studies with a total of 54 teachers to examine classroom teachers' attributions for severe school problems. In both studies, teachers who had referred a student for psychological services were asked to assign causality for the referral problem. In Exp II, teacher praise and criticism of referred students were examined as functions of causal attributions. Both studies show that teachers held student factors more responsible for classroom problems than teacher factors and that teachers' attributions varied somewhat for learning vs behavior problems. Exp II indicated that problem students perceived as lacking motivation were criticized more often by their teachers. Relationship of the results to attribution theory and teacher attribution research is discussed, and further research conducted in naturalistic settings is recommended. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of internal instructor frames of references in the student rating process.

Explored the cognitive judgment process underlying the rating of a teacher's behavior. Ratings were hypothesized to involve a comparative judgment process where elements in the teacher's actual behavior are compared to elements within a student's internal instructor frame of reference (e.g., ideal, best, average, and worst teacher). In Exp I 162 undergraduates rated the instructor and selected the frame of reference they used for each questionnaire item. The reference points most often used were the "average," "best," and "ideal" teacher and the least often used were the "worst teacher" and "no particular reference point." 140 undergraduates in Exp II were assigned to either 1 of 4 reference point groups or to a control group and rated both the reference point and the actual behavior. The magnitude of reference point ratings was in descending order from "ideal," "best," "average," to "worst" teacher. Reference point and actual rating differences and their interaction with teacher behavior factors were statistically significant. In Exp III 75 undergraduates rated both a "best" and "worst" teacher reference point and the teacher's actual behavior. Data confirmed the prediction that the reference point with the largest number of elements in common with the teacher's actual behavior would correlate best with the actual behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal communication of affect in interracial dyads.

Two experiments investigated the relationship between nonverbal behavior and the racial composition of a teacher–student dyad. The Multifactor Racial Attitude Inventory was used to measure prejudice. In Exp I, 36 high- and low-prejudiced White female undergraduates, acting as teachers, were led to praise successful White and Black students (confederates). Analysis of samples of nonverbal behavior showed that high-prejudiced teachers nonverbally discriminated between White and Black students (favoring Whites) significantly more than low-prejudiced teachers. In Exp II, 40 White and Black teachers (female undergraduates) taught successful White and Black students (confederates). Results show that both Whites and Blacks behaved nonverbally more positively to a student of their own race than to a student of the other race, although only same-race judges (12 White female undergraduates) could distinguish the differences in affect displayed by the Ss. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using worked examples as an instructional support in the algebra classroom.

In 2 experiments, high school students studied worked examples while learning how to translate English expressions into algebraic equations. In Exp 1, worked examples were used as part of the regular classroom instruction and as a support for homework. In Exp 2, students in a remedial mathematics class received individual instruction. Students using worked examples outperformed the control group on posttests after completing fewer practice problems; they also made fewer errors per problem and fewer types of errors during acquisition time, completed the work more rapidly, and required less assistance from the teacher. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A patient by any other name . . . : Clinician group difference in labeling bias.

Assessed the effect of labels on clinicians' judgments in a 2 * 2 design. Clinicians (N = 40) representing behavioral and analytic schools of thought viewed a single videotaped interview between a man who had recently applied for a new job and one of the authors. One-half of each group was told that the interviewee was a "job applicant," while the remaining 1/2 was told that he was a "patient." At the end of the videotape, all clinicians were asked to complete a questionnaire evaluating the interviewee. The interviewee was described as fairly well adjusted by the behavioral therapists regardless of the label supplied. This was not the case, however, for the more traditional therapists. When the interviewee was labeled "patient," he was described as significantly more disturbed than he was when he was labeled "job applicant." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of behavioral problem analysis versus instructional environment information on teachers' perceptions.

Compared 2 types of problem analysis information for their effects on 48 regular education teachers' problem attributions, ratings of acceptability, and preferences for intervention alternatives. Ss were given problem analysis vignettes containing either behavioral or instructional environment information after watching a videotape of a 2nd-grade girl exhibiting classroom behavior problems. Instructional environment information led to more problem attributions involving conditions in the classroom. Behavioral information led to more problem attributions concerning student characteristics and behavior and remote contextual variables. Ss in both informational conditions preferred instructional modification as a means of responding to the student's problems. Ratings of the intervention categories correlated significantly with Ss' problem attributions, perceptions of problem severity, and perceived likelihood for resolution in the classroom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity.

Examined the effect of level of processing (LP) on recognition memory using 2 response-signal delays (RSD; 500 and 1500 msec). In Exp 1, LP (semantic or nonsemantic) and RSD were manipulated between 24 college students. In Exp 2, orienting task (pleasantness rating or letter judgment) and RSD were manipulated among 32 Ss. In Exp 3, study orientation and test instructions (inclusion or exclusion) were within-S factors, and RSD was a between-S factor. 32 Ss were included in Exp 3. In Exp 1, a modality effect was found for fast responses. The LP was reliable at both points in time. In Exp 2, fast responses were associated with significantly more "false-alarms" to words encoded semantically than those encoded nonsemantically. In Exp 3, both recollection and familiarity estimates were elevated by prior conceptual processing. Estimates of recollection were affected by RSD. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality traits and teacher–student behaviors in physical education.

Analyzed the relationship of teacher personality as measured by the 16PF to teacher behaviors in physical education as measured by a physical education teacher assessment instrument. Teacher behavior data were obtained from 18 physical education teachers in 3 junior high schools, 5 middle schools, and 6 elementary schools who volunteered to teach a 10-lesson beginning volleyball unit using their own individual teaching styles. Eight students were randomly selected from each teacher's class (n?=?144). Results indicate the primary personality traits of assertiveness, expediency, questioning, imaginativeness, genuineness, confidence, and experimenting related significantly to many important teacher and student behaviors observed in a typical physical education class. Teachers who scored high on these personality traits tended to exhibit a higher level of knowledge, utilized objectives and testing more effectively, and were more flexible and appropriate in their instruction. They also provided more planned instruction and more positive feedback. Teachers who scored high in assertiveness, questioning, and imaginativeness tended to provide their students with more time on task and a higher quality of practice time. Students of teachers who scored high in independence, assertiveness, questioning, and imaginativeness learned more than did students of teachers who were low in these personality traits. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training behavioral consultants: A competency-based model to teach interview skills.

Developed a training package to teach consultation interview skills in 3 phases of behavioral consultation: (a) problem identification, (b) problem analysis, and (c) treatment evaluation. In Exp 1, 4 graduate students were exposed to a training manual and viewed videotape interview models. In Exp 2 with 3 graduate students, the videotapes were not used, but all other components remained intact. Exp 3 used the training manual to teach the skills to 2 practicing school psychologists, who then used the interview guidelines and format presented in the manual in an actual case in their schools. Results indicate that training specific consultation skills can be achieved successfully using standardized training procedures and formal interview guides. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observing leader behavior: Toward reciprocal determinism in leadership theory.

Developed and explored observational measures of leader behavior, relying on a "reciprocal determinism" viewpoint of causality (leader behavior is seen as both a cause of subordinate behavior and caused by it). In Exp I, 28 male undergraduates assumed the role of subordinate in groups of 2 Ss and took part in 1 of 5 experimental interchanges with a "supervisor" (1 of the experimenters). Results show that observational methods of leader verbal behavior were feasible. In Exp II, 10 graduate students performed the role of leader and were subjected to laboratory manipulations of subordinate performance. Results show that 80% of verbal behavior of Ss concentrated on a methods approach as opposed to about 20% effort oriented toward a motivational-verbal approach. Motivational behavior was the most responsive to the performance manipulations. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The problem of creating habits: Establishing health-protective dental behaviors.

Conducted 3 experiments on treatments to promote the performance of health-protective dental behaviors. Ss included 40 female college students (Exp 1), 36 undergraduates (Exp 2), and 81 older college students (aged 22–56 yrs) at risk for gum disease (Exp 3). The interventions, derived from social cognitive theory, included health education, skills training, and self-monitoring. Each study examined the contribution of additional treatment components, including social support (Exp 1), intensive contact (Exp 2), and flexible goal setting (Exp 3). Behavioral results were similar in that Ss exhibited excellent adherence while in the study but at follow-up reported behavior that differed little from baseline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of talking level on perceptions of counselors.

Conducted 2 experiments in which 60 graduate counseling students (Exp I) and 180 undergraduates (Exp II) evaluated content-filtered stimulus tapes of "counseling sessions" with male and female counselors engaging in low, medium, or high levels of talking. Optimal levels of talking were specified by 50 additional undergraduates. Counselors with low amounts of talking were evaluated most favorably on a linking dimension, and counselors with high amounts of talking were evaluated most strongly on a domineering dimension. Results show no significant effects for S or counselor sex. Undergraduate Ss were somewhat more favorable in their evaluations than counseling students. Suggestions are given for an attributional analysis of counselor talking behavior. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward retarded children: Effects of labeling and behavioral aggressiveness.

Examined effects of the label "mentally retarded" on attitudes of peers among 48 3rd graders. Half of the Ss were shown a videotape of an actor displaying acting-out behavior, while the remaining half were shown a videotape with the same actor engaging in passive behavior. Half of the Ss in each of these 2 groups were told that the actor was a 5th grader, and the other half were told that he was a mentally retarded boy in a special class. Analysis of variance results revealed a significant interaction between label and behavior, which indicated that Ss responded more negatively to the "mentally retarded" actor who displayed acting-out behavior than to the same actor who exhibited identical behavior but was not labeled. It is concluded that labels should be considered only as they interact with specific behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Person categories and social perception: Testing some boundaries of the processing effect of prior knowledge.

Investigated whether stereotypic knowledge would influence social perception in a more realistic setting. In Exp I, 96 undergraduates watched a videotape of a target woman identified either as a waitress or a librarian; Ss more accurately remembered features of the woman that were consistent with their prototype of a waitress (librarian) than features that were inconsistent. The prototype-consistency effect did not interact with the delay time before recognition memory was assessed. In Exp III, 56 Ss learned the occupational information either before or after watching the tape. The prototype-consistency effect from Exp I was replicated. In addition, knowing the target's occupation while watching her led to increased accuracy for both consistent and inconsistent information. The probable role of both encoding and retrieval processes in contributing to this effect is noted. Perceivers' stereotypic prior knowledge influenced their memory of a target person's behavior even in a realistic person-perception situation. Conditions that favor the memorability of consistent vs inconsistent information are discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How to promote social approval: Effects of audience and achievement outcome on publicly communicated attributions.

Students' understanding of attributional self-presentation strategies that facilitate adults' and peers' social approval in achievement situations was examined. In Exp 1, 8th-grade students were asked to predict how success and failure due to ability (high vs low) and effort (high vs low) would affect peer popularity and teacher liking. Students recognized that attributions elicit different responses depending on their audience and achievement outcome. In Exp 2, the same participants rated the likelihood of communicating 4 attributions (ability, effort, exam fairness, and luck) as a reason of their own imagined exam performance to peers, teachers, and parents. Consistent with the results of Exp 1, the students varied their explanations according to the outcome and the audience. The results of the 2nd experiment were also replicated with college students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group climate as a factor in the relevance and accuracy of social perception.

"Twenty-eight groups of five or four graduate students each, controlled for sex, education, and acquaintance were assigned to congenial or noncongenial group climates." The accuracy of social perception as a function of the "climate" of social interaction was studied. "Individuals in congenial groups were significantly more accurate in perceiving task oriented behavior of their group than were individuals in noncongenial groups… . Individuals in noncongenial groups were not more accurate in perceiving the interpersonal relations in the groups than were individuals in congenial groups." Other findings on accuracy of perception are reported. "It is concluded that social climates can predictably affect the perception of task-oriented behavior, but that further research on the relationships among social climate, ego-oriented behavior, and accuracy in social perception is necessary." 24 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)