The measurement of psychological androgyny.

Describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and femininity as 2 independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data, provided by 561 male and 356 female college and junior college students, are presented, as well as the results of various psychometric analyses. Findings indicate that: (a) The dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically and logically independent. (b) The concept of psychological androgyny is a reliable one. (c) Highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny.

Attempted to determine how individual differences in sex-role orientation, as assessed by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, were related to undergraduates' display of nonverbal behaviors indicative of "masculinity" and "femininity." Smiling, gazing (feminine behaviors), interrupting, and filled pausing (masculine behaviors) were coded for sex-typed males and females and androgynous males and females assigned to either an instrumental situation or an expressive situation in 36 same-sex dyads. Analyses of nonverbal behavior showed that androgynous Ss showed a blend of both masculine and feminine behaviors. The blend was the product of the addition of cross-sex behavior and deletion of some sex-consonant behavior. In contrast, sex-typed Ss showed more cross-sex behavioral avoidance and more sex-consonant behavioral cohesion. Results are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974, 1975) and J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's (1977) conceptions of masculinity and femininity. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward mental health: The benefits of psychological androgyny.

Addresses the importance of psychological androgyny—defined as possessing a high degree of instrumental and expressive qualities—to considerations of sex roles, equality, and mental health. The personality and behavioral correlates of androgyny are summarized, implications for mental health professions, such as readjustment of their conceptions of what constitutes "healthy" personal value systems, are discussed. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An investigation of the relationship between psychological androgyny and components of self-concept.

357 college students participated in a study designed to investigate whether the higher levels of self-esteem and self-concept of androgynous individuals are due to an integration of both masculine and feminine traits or due only to a high level of masculinity. Ss completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a semantic differential scale previously shown to assess 4 dimensions of the self-concept. The androgynous group scored higher than the undifferentiated group on adjustment to the environment. The androgynous and masculine groups scored higher than the feminine and undifferentiated groups on achievement/leadership, which tends to reflect an instrumental role. Androgynous and feminine Ss scored higher than masculine and undifferentiated Ss on congeniality/sociability, which reflects an expressive role. The masculine and feminine groups scored at appropriate ends of the masculinity/femininity self-concept dimension, with the androgynous and undifferentiated groups at intermediate levels. These results support S. L. Bem's (1975, 1977) theory of androgynous flexibility. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new measure of psychological androgyny based on the Personality Research Form.

Describes the development and validation of the PRF (Personality Research Form) ANDRO scale whose Masculinity and Femininity subscales were drawn, on the basis of theoretical definitions, from the item pool of the Personality Research Form. Using data obtained from 2,146 undergraduates, the subscales of the PRF ANDRO scale are shown to be independent, reliable, minimally related to socially desirable responding, and substantially related to corresponding subscales on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (correlations between .50 and .65) and to major personality dimensions. Further evidence of construct validity is adduced from the score patterns in 18 different samples that included over 6,000 Ss from populations varying in age, education, occupation, and clinical status. Since the PRF ANDRO scale can be scored from the answer sheets of the Personality Research Form, other investigators may reanalyze prior studies with particular regard to the proposition that high levels of Masculinity and Femininity, jointly denoting psychological androgyny, predict greater interpersonal competence and transsituational adaptability than do traditionally sex-typed role orientations. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of psychological androgyny: an extended replication

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the recently developed measure for psychological androgyny, was administered to 344 middle-Tennessee high school and university students. The BSRS's reliability coefficients and mean scores were very similar to those reported earlier for California junior college and university students, respectively. The present scoring patterns for the BSRI remained unchanged with the introduction of the four "familial context" variables of sex of Ss' siblings, sex of Ss' nearest-in-age sibling, parent whom the Ss considered emotionally warmest, and parent whom the Ss would most prefer to be like. Contrary to Bem's original findings, the present results with the BSRI suggested that Ss' responses to the measure may be affected by the social desirability phenomenon. Moreover, scores on the BSRI did not correlate consistently or highly with those presently obtained with a symbolic sex-role measure and a verbal sex-role scale. This lack of construct validity has been reported previously in at least two other studies. Though apparently reliable, the validity of the BSI remains problematic.     

Creativity, masculinity, femininity, and three models of psychological androgyny.

Five empirically derived indices of creative self-concept correlated positively with several indices of psychological masculinity in 85 female and 105 male undergraduates and somewhat negatively with indices of psychological femininity among males and females. Among the measures used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Adjective Check List. Production on the Alternate Uses Test correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with femininity in a subset of 50 males explicitly instructed to "be creative." As a reflection of this positive association between masculinity and creativity indices, Ss defined as masculine or androgynous, using conventional median-split methods, obtained significantly higher creativity indices than conventionally defined feminine or unclassifiable Ss. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the applicability of balance, additive, and multiplicative models of androgyny to the study of creativity; (b) the factorial complexity of several currently used masculinity and femininity scales; and (c) possible conflicts between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative females and apparent congruencies between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative males. (85 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Further meta-analytic procedures for assessing cognitive gender differences.

Outlined procedures for assessing the heterogeneity of a set of effect sizes derived from a meta-analysis, testing for trends with contrasts among the effect sizes obtained, and evaluating the practical importance of the average effect size obtained. These procedures were applied to data presented by J. S. Hyde (1981) regarding cognitive gender differences. The authors conclude that (a) for all 4 areas of cognitive skill investigated, effect sizes for gender differences differed significantly across studies; (b) recent studies of gender differences show a substantial gain in cognitive performance by females relative to males; and (c) studies of gender differences show male vs female effect sizes of practical importance equivalent to outcome rates of 60 vs 40%. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of economic utility estimates for alternative SDy estimation procedures.

Compared the per-selectee and total utility estimates for an assessment center that was used to select midlevel sales managers when 2 consensus-seeking procedures, the F. L. Schmidt et al (see record 1981-02231-001) procedure and 40% and 70% of mean salary, were used for estimating the standard deviation of job performance in dollars (SDy). Using the Schmidt et al procedure as the base, the overall utility estimates varied from 21 to 125% of the Schmidt et al values. For most cases, the different SDy estimation procedures produced somewhat similar utility estimates. The resulting estimated dollar gains from the use of the assessment center to select sales managers were substantial in all cases. The dollar gains from the current selection strategy were, at a maximum, only 63% of estimated top-down selection utility gains. Findings illustrate the value of economic utility analysis for evaluating human resource programs regardless of the type of SDy estimation procedure used. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two modified procedures for estimating standard deviations in utility analyses.

F. L. Schimdt et al (see record 1981-02231-001) developed a procedure for obtaining rational estimates of the standard deviation of job performance in dollars (SDy). A problem in using their procedure is that it can yield large variation in percentile point estimates across judges. Two modified procedures using consensual feedback were tested with 26 high-level managers to determine if the new procedures could reduce this variability. The normality assumption of the utility estimates yielded by the Schmidt et al and modified procedures was also investigated, and SDy estimates from the Schmidt et al and 2 modified procedures were compared to each other and to a performance and salary distribution. Results indicate that one of the modified procedures offers an improved practical means of obtaining rational SDy estimates in utility analyses. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confirmatory factor analytic procedures for assessing change during organizational entry.

Confirmatory factor analytic procedures that assess changes in the level of work-related constructs (e.g., organizational commitment), and also their reconstitution by individuals as they enter a new organization, are presented and applied to data from 101 doctoral program newcomers. The procedures assessed changes over time in the factor loadings, variances, and covariances of responses as well as changes in the level of common factor means, holding constant the latter changes in factor structure. The present application shows that this approach can yield profitable insights about shifts in the individual's perspective during organizational entry while also enabling researchers to determine the effect of such perceptual reconstitution on inferences about mean changes with repeated measures. Procedures are proposed to further apply this analytical framework to organizational entry and other research areas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A simulation study comparing procedures for assessing individual educational growth.

Developed a computer simulation procedure to reproduce the overall pattern of results of the Educational Testing Service 1971 growth study. Then, simulated data for 7 sets of 10,000 to 15,000 cases were analyzed with several techniques for assessing growth. Techniques were compared on the basis of correlations between estimated and true growth scores and of root mean square errors. Growth was estimated most accurately by procedures that involved the pretest-posttest difference, and for practical purposes all estimates that involved this difference had approximately equal accuracy. In particular, the simple difference between pre- and posttest scores seemed about as accurate as any other estimate, was easier to compute, and should be meaningful to nonresearchers. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Statistical procedures for evaluating the practical utility of a moderator approach to prediction.

Describes 3 statistical procedures for evaluating the practical utility of a moderator approach. Each procedure gives tests of significance for the comparison of 3 prediction strategies: (a) using the moderator variable as a basis for subgrouping Ss and computing separate regression equations, (b) using the moderator variable as a predictor variable, or (c) excluding the moderator variable from the prediction model. It is concluded that when job performance is measured along a continuum, the average y score of the selected group (Procedure 1) should be considered. However, when 2 levels of job performance are measured, (e.g., pass-fail grades) then either the number of selection errors (Procedure 2) or the number of selection errors when a selection ratio constraint is present (Procedure 3) should be used. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance.

Meta-analysis of the cumulative research on various predictors of job performance showed that for entry-level jobs there was no predictor with validity equal to that of ability, which had a mean validity of .53. For selection on the basis of current job performance, the work sample test, with mean validity of .54, was slightly better. For federal entry-level jobs, substitution of an alternative predictor would cost from $3.12 (job tryout) to $15.89 billion/year (age). Hiring on ability had a utility of $15.61 billion/year but affected minority groups adversely. Hiring on ability by quotas would decrease utility by 5%. A 3rd strategy—using a low cutoff score—would decrease utility by 83%. Using other predictors in conjunction with ability tests might improve validity and reduce adverse impact, but there is as yet no database for studying this possibility. (89 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Statistical procedures and the justification of knowledge in psychological science.

Justification, in the vernacular language of philosophy of science, refers to the evaluation, defense, and confirmation of claims of truth. In this article, we examine some aspects of the rhetoric of justification, which in part draws on statistical data analysis to shore up facts and inductive inferences. There are a number of problems of methodological spirit and substance that in the past have been resistant to attempts to correct them. The major problems are discussed, and readers are reminded of ways to clear away these obstacles to justification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the utility of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning.

Examined the use of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning by university students given extensive keyword training. Keywords were identified by the learners rather than supplied by the experimenter. In Exp 1, Ss studied and recalled English equivalents of German nouns before and after mnemonic training under different presentation conditions. Before training, learning was 60% better with 4 list presentations at a 2.5-s rate (4?×?2.5) than with 1 presentation at a 10-s rate (1?×?10). Learning was better after training, especially in the 1?×?10 condition; Ss reported difficulty using the keyword mnemonic in the 4?×?2.5 condition despite higher learning scores in that condition after training. In Exp 2, Ss learned brief definitions of unusual words with self-paced presentation. The keyword Ss scored significantly more poorly than controls on items not selected for keyword suitability, and additional data indicated that it was difficult to generate keywords for many of those items and that an alternative mediational strategy was preferred. A 3rd experiment showed no learning difference between the keyword-generated version of the keyword method used in Exps 1 and 2 and a keyword-supplied condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On assessing social psychological theories through the study of individual differences: Template matching and forced compliance.

55 undergraduates were induced to advocate counterattitudinal political positions either relatively close to their own (acceptance) or further from their own (rejection). Significant attitude change toward the advocated position was observed in both conditions. Individual-difference prediction templates were derived from dissonance, self-perception, and self-presentation theories. A template was derived from an informal theory of psychological momentum that assumes Ss sometimes give altered attitude reports because of a tendency to unconsciously continue the advocacy in which they have just been engaged. The self-presentation template was the best predictor of attitude change within the latitude of acceptance; the momentum template was the best predictor within the latitude of rejection, and also overall. Various technical and substantive aspects of the template-matching technique are discussed. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On psychological rehabilitation.

Agrees with W. A. Anthony's (see record 1978-12897-001) article on psychological rehabilitation (REHAB) and points out that both the construct and process of REHAB are foreign to most mental health practitioners. The distinction between treatment and REHAB must be made if practitioners are going to develop programs that affect REHAB outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)