Perceptual asymmetry in consensus estimates of majority and minority members.

Three experiments revealed a consistent pattern of consensus estimates. Numerical status and group growth or decline were manipulated between subjects. Growth was manipulated orthogonally to a 3rd variable: focus. Focus was manipulated by describing growth information with respect either to the in-group or the out-group (e.g., in-group growth and out-group decline). A Numerical Status?×?Focus interaction emerged in Study 1. Numerical minority members' consensus estimates for an opinion issue increased when growth information was out-group focused, whereas majority members' estimates did not differ as a function of the focus variable. Study 2 replicated these effects across other opinion dimensions. Study 3 confirmed the importance of the growth and focus variables in the absence of numerical status manipulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept.

This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The conscious, the unconscious, and familiarity.

This article examines the role of subjective familiarity in the implicit and explicit learning of artificial grammars. Experiment 1 found that objective measures of similarity (including fragment frequency and repetition structure) predicted ratings of familiarity, that familiarity ratings predicted grammaticality judgments, and that the extremity of familiarity ratings predicted confidence. Familiarity was further shown to predict judgments in the absence of confidence, hence contributing to above-chance guessing. Experiment 2 found that confidence developed as participants refined their knowledge of the distribution of familiarity and that differences in familiarity could be exploited prior to confidence developing. Experiment 3 found that familiarity was consciously exploited to make grammaticality judgments including those made without confidence and that familiarity could in some instances influence participants' grammaticality judgments apparently without their awareness. All 3 experiments found that knowledge distinct from familiarity was derived only under deliberate learning conditions. The results provide decisive evidence that familiarity is the essential source of knowledge in artificial grammar learning while also supporting a dual-process model of implicit and explicit learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Congruency of student evaluative information collected by three methods.

Investigated the structural corroboration of instructional evaluation information collected from 1 source (students) by 3 different methods: student responses to objective questionnaire items, written student comments to open-ended questions, and group interview results. Pearson product-moment correlations calculated between instructor and course ratings across 14 class sections based on each of the 3 data collection methods revealed a high degree of structural corroboration of overall teaching performance and course quality. Results indicate that the 3 types of evaluative information examined presented a similar general impression of instructor quality. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital roles, sex differences, and interpersonal attraction.

Tested the hypothesis that role and dispositional factors can alter the usual link between similarity and attraction. In 2 replications, 64 undergraduate females and 64 males with traditional or nontraditional attitudes toward sex roles and marriage (measured by the Marital Role Decisions Questionnaire) rated similar or dissimilar opposite-sex strangers on 3 attraction measures. Results show that sex and traditionality interacted with similarity in determining ratings of the strangers' general likability and personal role attraction (e.g., desirability as a dating partner), but not their functional role attraction (e.g., desirability as a debater on sex roles). The discussion suggests that previous attempts to find interactions have often failed because of a lack of correspondence between dispositional factors and similarity manipulations. Reinforcement and informational explanations could account for the overall findings, but communication factors of extremity and discrepancy could not. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Nudging aside Meehl's paradox": Erratum.

Reports a typesetting error in the original article by L. Leventhal (Canadian Psychology, 1994[Jul], Vol 35[3], 283–298). On page 295, the sentence should read "Compared to the old views, the new views might give less weight to the confidence interval and more weight to the probability value of .007 which indicates that the theory performed far better than chance." (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 82:8115.) P. E. Meehl (1967) attacked significance tests used to appraise directional theoretical predictions. With perfect statistical power, the probability approaches .5 of significance in the predicted direction, even for meritless theories. Feeble theory corroboration results. This article argues that directional predictions, not significance tests, produce the feeble corroboration. The author reviews previous solutions to Meehl, rejecting all except the multiple corroboration solution by D. T. Lykken (1968) and A. Kukla (see record 1991-31958-001). This solution is defended against Meehl's (see record 1991-31961-001) criticisms and extended.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of prior performance information on ratings of present performance: Contrast versus assimilation revisited.

Examined the effects of knowledge of a ratee's prior performance on evaluations of present performance. Subjects received knowledge of either good or poor prior performances and then viewed and rated a videotape depicting average performance. In Study 1, some subjects received knowledge of the ratee's prior performance by directly viewing videotapes of good or poor ratee behavior, whereas others only reviewed written performance ratings completed by those subjects who had actually viewed the ratee. A contrast effect occurred when knowledge of prior performance was obtained by observing ratee behavior, but an assimilation effect occurred when knowledge of prior performance was obtained by reviewing performance ratings. In Study 2, subjects viewed videotapes of good or poor performances prior to viewing an average performance by the same ratee. However, the separate ratee performances were observed over a more realistic time interval than that used in Study 1 (3 weeks vs. 1 h). No significant contrast effects were observed. In Study 3, subjects reviewed written ratings of prior performances before viewing an average videotape. Subjects who reviewed extremely good (or poor) prior performance ratings provided more extreme ratings of the "average" performance than did subjects who reviewed less extreme ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in children's perceptions of social deviance: Changes in behavior or in perspective?

Previous research by the present authors (see record 1985-14217-001) revealed grade-related changes in children's ratings of aggression and withdrawal in peers. The contributions to such changes of age-related differences in the perspective of the raters and in the behavior of the children rated were investigated. Study 1 examined 120 teachers' ratings of aggression and withdrawal in 1st-, 4th-, and 7th-grade children to assess effects of age of children rated. In contrast to earlier findings with peer raters, no differences were found across grade level in the organization of teacher ratings. Study 2 examined age of rater differences in 436 1st-, 4th-, and 7th-grade Ss' beliefs about behavior that might be displayed by hypothetical peers. Differences paralleled those observed earlier in children's actual peer ratings. Study 3 examined 351 1st- and 7th-grade Ss' ratings of peers who were older or younger than the raters to assess the influence of age of rater on Ss' ratings. Age of rater effects emerged even when Ss rated peers who were not their age mates. These findings suggest that differences across grade level reported in children's peer ratings largely reflect differences in the child raters' view of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers' accuracy and predictive validity.

The bulk of personality research has been built from self-report measures of personality. However, collecting personality ratings from other-raters, such as family, friends, and even strangers, is a dramatically underutilized method that allows better explanation and prediction of personality's role in many domains of psychology. Drawing hypotheses from D. C. Funder's (1995) realistic accuracy model about trait and information moderators of accuracy, we offer 3 meta-analyses to help researchers and applied psychologists understand and interpret both consistencies and unique insights afforded by other-ratings of personality. These meta-analyses integrate findings based on 44,178 target individuals rated across 263 independent samples. Each meta-analysis assessed the accuracy of observer ratings, as indexed by interrater consensus/reliability (Study 1), self–other correlations (Study 2), and predictions of behavior (Study 3). The results show that although increased frequency of interacting with targets does improve accuracy in rating personality, informants' interpersonal intimacy with the target is necessary for substantial increases in other-rating accuracy. Interpersonal intimacy improved accuracy especially for traits low in visibility (e.g., Emotional Stability) but only minimally for traits high in evaluativeness (e.g., Agreeableness). In addition, observer ratings were strong predictors of behaviors. When the criterion was academic achievement or job performance, other-ratings yielded predictive validities substantially greater than and incremental to self-ratings. These findings indicate that extraordinary value can gained by using other-reports to measure personality, and these findings provide guidelines toward enriching personality theory. Various subfields of psychology in which personality variables are systematically assessed and utilized in research and practice can benefit tremendously from use of others' ratings to measure personality variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention and weight in person perception: The impact of negative and extreme behavior.

Analyzed the social perception process to determine whether selectivity of available stimuli is based on the informativeness of person attributes, the properties of which are the evaluative extremity (distance from the scale midpoint) and the evaluative valence (positive or negative). In a preliminary scaling study and a main weighting study, 126 undergraduates independently rated the likability of the 16 stimuli persons portrayed on slides. Negativity and extremity were manipulated on the slides across 2 behavioral dimensions: sociability and civic activism. Ss saw 2 prescaled behavior photographs for each stimulus person and controlled a slide changer switch, providing a measure of attention as looking time. Likability ratings provided a measure of relative weight derived from N. H. Anderson's (1968) information integration model. Results show that Ss preferentially weighted behaviors that were extreme or negative, and the behavioral measure of attention (looking time) replicated the predicted pattern. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inspiration and the promotion of well-being: Tests of causality and mediation.

The influence of inspiration on well-being was examined in 4 studies. In Study 1, experimental manipulation of exposure to extraordinary competence increased positive affect, and inspiration accounted for this effect. In Study 2, trait inspiration predicted an increase in positive hedonic and eudaimonic well-being variables (positive affect, life satisfaction, vitality, and self-actualization) across a 3-month period, even when the Big 5 traits, initial levels of all well-being variables, and social desirability biases were controlled. In Study 3, both trait inspiration and personal goals inspiration predicted increases in positive well-being variables across a 3-month period. In contrast, well-being did not predict longitudinal change in inspiration. Study 4, a diary study, extended the relation between inspiration and well-being to the within-person level of analysis. For given individuals, variations in inspiration across mornings predicted variations in evening levels of positive well-being variables. These effects were mediated by purpose in life and gratitude. These studies provide converging evidence that inspiration enhances well-being and document 2 parallel mediating processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Liking and Memory for Musical Stimuli as a Function of Exposure.

Three experiments examined changes in liking and memory for music as a function of number of previous exposures, the ecological validity of the music, and whether the exposure phase required focused or incidental listening. After incidental listening, liking ratings were higher for music heard more often in the exposure phase and this association was stronger as ecological validity increased. After focused listening, liking ratings followed an inverted U-shaped function of exposure for the most ecologically valid stimuli (initial increases followed by decreases), but this curvilinear function was attenuated or nonexistent for less valid stimuli. In general, recognition improved as a function of previous exposure for focused listeners, but the effect was attenuated or absent for incidental listeners. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours": Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness.

The consistency of physical attractiveness ratings across cultural groups was examined. In Study 1, recently arrived native Asian and Hispanic students and White Americans rated the attractiveness of Asian, Hispanic, Black, and White photographed women. The mean correlation between groups in attractiveness ratings was r?=?.93. Asians, Hispanics, and Whites were equally influenced by many facial features, but Asians were less influenced by some sexual maturity and expressive features. In Study 2, Taiwanese attractiveness ratings correlated with prior Asian, Hispanic, and American ratings, mean r?=?.91. Supporting Study 1, the Taiwanese also were less positively influenced by certain sexual maturity and expressive features. Exposure to Western media did not influence attractiveness ratings in either study. In Study 3, Black and White American men rated the attractiveness of Black female facial photos and body types. Mean facial attractiveness ratings were highly correlated (r?=?.94), but as predicted Blacks and Whites varied in judging bodies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparative study of novice nuns and college females using the response set approach.

The vastly different type of life chosen by novice nuns and college females suggested personality differences which were thought likely to be reflected in response style. Accordingly, 40 Ss in each group were asked to rate each of the Rorschach inkblots on 21 semantic differential scales. It was found that the nuns generally rated the inkblots toward the more positive extreme of the evaluation scales and at times toward the more potent extreme of the potency scales. The generality of this tendency was assessed by comparing the social desirability (SD) ratings of 28 nuns to those of 28 college females. It was again found that the nuns tended toward more extreme ratings. The introduction of the SD dimension resulted not only in more positively extreme ratings on adjectives ordinarily rated positively, but also more negaitvely extreme ratings on adjectives ordinarily rated as negative. Nuns were more variable than college females in rating nearly neutral adjectives. It was concluded that these tendency differences might be used as a basis for later prediction studies. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics associated with real and made-up events: The effects of event valence, event elaboration, and individual differences.

In three studies, participants rated both real and made-up personal events on several different characteristics. These included meta-cognitive beliefs about the perceived realness and typicality of these events, imagery ratings of visual detail, and emotional ratings of intensity and feelings. Studies 1 and 2 explored the impact of event valence (pleasant versus unpleasant) on these characteristics, whereas Study 3 focused on the effects of event elaboration involving guided imagery and journaling techniques. All three studies also included consideration of individual difference factors that might either enhance or attenuate the ratings that were obtained. Both Studies 1 and 2 found that pleasant events (be they real or made-up), were viewed as more typical, and more likely to have happened and be true, than unpleasant events. This pattern of meta-cognitive judgments provided support for a general positivity hypothesis, which proposes that most individuals orient towards and emphasize pleasant rather than unpleasant life experience and events. In contrast, the imagery-related components of these events, such as visual details, location, and time, were much less sensitive to the manipulation of event valence. Strong imagery-related effects, however, were noted when events were elaborated in the final study. Furthermore, this event elaboration manipulation also resulted in heightened meta-cognitive judgments of typicality, likelihood of the event having happened, and of being true. Finally, across all three studies, a series of correlational analyses indicated that the individual difference factors did not have any systematic effect on any of the event characteristic ratings. However, when event valence was not specifically manipulated (in Study 3), depressed individuals spontaneously provided twice as many unpleasant personal events as nondepressed individuals. These findings were then discussed in terms of source-confusion issues regarding personal memory accuracy, as well as the further extension of a recent model of autobiographical memory to incorporate event properties such as valence and elaboration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Repulsion or attraction?: Group membership and assumed attitude similarity.

Three studies investigated group membership effects on similarity-attraction and dissimilarity-repulsion. Membership in an in-group versus out-group was expected to create initially different levels of assumed attitude similarity. In 3 studies, ratings made after participants learned about the target's attitudes were compared with initial attraction based only on knowing target's group membership. Group membership was based on political affiliation in Study I and on sexual orientation in Study 2. Study 3 crossed political affiliation with target's obnoxiousness. Attitude dissimilarity produced stronger repulsion effects for in-group than for out-group members in all studies. Attitude similarity produced greater increments in attraction for political out-group members but not for targets with a stigmatic sexual orientation or personality characteristic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater confidence and social influence in performance appraisals.

The influence of rater confidence on combined evaluations was examined when information from multiple sources was available. Confidence was related to evaluation extremity for novice raters when no other rater information was available. Information from multiple raters differentially affected the relationship between confidence and rating extremity. Evaluation information supplied by a highly confident, extreme rater significantly influenced evaluations from noninteracting novice raters but only minimally influenced evaluations from interacting novice raters. Among experts, raters seen as raising the greatest number of and the most persuasive arguments were most influential. The most accurate rater in a group had little effect on combined evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)