Fire-resistance study of restrained steel columns with partial damage to fire protection

In order to analyze the behavior of steel columns in fire with partial damage of fire protection, an analytical model is presented based on the differential equation of equilibrium, which may be used to predict the ultimate load bearing capacity of steel columns fixed at two ends and to predict the critical temperature of axially restrained steel columns. The imperfection of initial flexure of steel columns is taken into account in the model. The yielding of the edge fiber at the mid-span of a column subjected to elevated temperature is taken as the failure criteria for the fire resistance of the column. A numerical application is carried out to demonstrate the effect of the damage of fire protection on the ultimate load bearing capacity and axial force increase of axially restrained steel column in fire. Comparing with FEM, the model proposed in the paper has been validated and good agreement has been found.     

Behavior of steel columns in a fire with partial damage to fire protection

An experimental study is performed on two specimens in a furnace to investigate the fire behaviour of steel columns with partial loss of fire protection. The steel columns are connected by flush end-plates at two ends and the axial load is kept constant with a load ratio of 0.55 subjected to an elevation of temperature. The specimens are protected with 20 mm thickness of fire protection. The damaged length of fire protection is 7% of the complete length of the column for specimen S-1 and 14% for S-2 at the two ends of the steel columns. The temperature of atmosphere around the specimens in the furnace is assumed to follow the ISO834 standard temperature and the temperatures and displacements are measured in the experiment. The temperature distribution along the steel column is modelled by finite element analysis and compared with the measured results. A continuum model is presented to predict the ultimate load capacity or critical temperature of the columns with fire protection damage. Analyses are carried out on the specimens and compared with the experiment. Experimental and analytical results showed that the fire resistance of steel columns with partial damage to the fire protection is reduced. The damage length of the fire protection has a great effect on the fire resistance of steel columns. The failure of the specimens mainly resulted from the buckling or yielding at the portion where the fire protection is damaged.     

Reliability analysis of reinforced concrete columns exposed to fire

A reliability analysis is conducted on reinforced concrete columns subjected to fire load. From an evaluation of load frequency of occurrence, load random variables are taken to be dead load, sustained live load, and fire temperature. Resistance is developed for axial capacity, with random variables taken as steel yield strength, concrete compressive strength, placement of reinforcement, and section width and height. A rational interaction model based on the Rankine approach is used to estimate column capacity as a function of fire exposure time. Various factors were considered in the analysis such as fire type, load ratio, reinforcement ratio, cover, concrete strength, load eccentricity, and other parameters. Reliability was computed from 0 to 4 h of fire exposure using Monte Carlo simulation. It was found that reliability decreased nonlinearly as a function of time, while the most significant parameters were fire type, load ratio, eccentricity, and reinforcement ratio.     

Thermal bowing on steel columns embedded on walls under fire conditions

The contact of steel columns with building walls is responsible for huge thermal gradients within its cross-section during fire. Current regulatory codes for fire design of steel members provide a formulation to assess the load-bearing capacity of these members assuming uniform temperature through the cross-section; however, this is not what happens in the major part of the cases in real structures where the columns are embedded on walls. The walls on one hand will provide a temperature reduction on the columns, which is somehow favourable in terms of its fire resistance, on the other hand the differential heating on the columns cross-section may lead to unfavourable stresses (bending moments) responsible for instability (thermal bowing). Considering that the structural behaviour of columns is strongly dependent of the second order effects this is an important phenomenon which may lead to a significant reduction on its fire resistance. This paper presents the results of a numerical study to assess the influence of the differential heating on the fire design of steel columns. New interaction axial force–bending moment diagrams for non-uniformly heated H steel columns are proposed.     

Extended Rankine approach for bi-axially loaded steel columns under natural fire

Up till now, there has been limited research work conducted on bi-axially loaded steel columns under fire conditions. Under normal ambient temperature, the load-bearing capacity of steel columns is governed by the interaction of strength and stability considerations, which gives rise to the Rankine method. The authors extended this method to predict the fire resistance of steel columns subjected to bi-axial loading under standard fire curve. Basically, the authors developed an interaction equation based on failure surface to account for the effects of axial load and bending moments in two directions. Predictions from the proposed approach were benchmarked against a well-established finite element program SAFIR for steel columns under standard fire conditions. The same approach is then extended to include natural fire curves. To model a compartment fire with different geometries, thermal characteristics of boundary walls, different fire loads and ventilation factors, a zone fire modelling program Ozone was used. Coupling Ozone to SAFIR, the failure times of steel columns in a compartment fire were predicted. These numerical predictions were compared with those from the proposed approach and reasonable agreement was obtained.     

A simple approach for modeling fire-resistance of steel columns with locally damaged fire protection

In order to analyze the behavior of steel columns in a fire with partial damage to their fire protection, two simple models are presented. One of the models based on the differential equation of equilibrium may be used to predict the ultimate load bearing capacity of steel columns hinged at two ends and the other may be employed to predict the critical temperature of axially restrained steel columns. The imperfections including initial flexure of steel columns and load eccentricity are taken into account in the models. The edge fiber yielding at the mid-span of a column is taken as the failure criteria for the fire-resistance of the column. A numerical application is carried out to demonstrate the effect of the damage to fire protection on the ultimate load bearing capacity and critical temperature of steel columns in a fire. The results show that the load bearing capacity is reduced at a given temperature with increasing damaged length of fire protection. The axially restrained stiffness and load ratio have a significant influence on the critical temperature of steel columns. By employing the computer models, the approach proposed in the paper has been validated and good agreement has been found.     

Effect of transverse reinforcement spacing on fire resistance of high strength concrete columns

The confinement effect due to the congested transverse reinforcement is a very important feature for reinforced concrete columns subjected to accidental load conditions. The influence of transverse reinforcement spacings on load bearing capacity of high strength concrete (HSC) columns at ambient temperature has been the subject of many research projects, both experimental and theoretical. However, at high temperature the results of research into this subject are scarce and do not provide unambiguous evidence as to the effect of spacing of transverse reinforcement on fire load capacity and fire resistance.The first part of this paper presents an experimental study of the influence of transverse reinforcement spacing on fire resistance of axially loaded, HSC columns with circular cross-section. The results of full-scale tests indicate that columns with spacing of ties recommended by the code provisions for design of concrete structures could suffer a premature failure as a consequence of inelastic buckling of main reinforcing bars between adjacent ties.The next part of the paper concerns the supplementary numerical analysis of tested columns. The columns were modelled in axisymmetry with embedded reinforcement. The applied material model took into account the influence of transient temperature on mechanical properties of concrete and steel. The effect of cracking, development of transient creep strains and plastic strains for concrete were also included in the analysis. The inelastic buckling of main reinforcement was modelled using average stress–strain relationships for steel in compression. The comparison of numerical simulations and experiments shows reasonable agreement. The assessment of failure modes using the numerical simulation is also presented in the paper. The results of calculations indicate that during the whole heating period high thermal gradients generated tensile stresses in the plane of cross-section of the columns. Due to this fact the confinement effect was not observed for the columns with congested spacing of transverse reinforcement.     

Cold-formed steel columns made with open cross-sections subjected to fire

An experimental study on the fire behaviour of cold-formed steel lipped channel (C) and built-up I (2C) slender columns with restrained thermal elongation is presented. The studied parameters were the stiffness of the surrounding structure, type of cross-section, end support conditions and initial applied load level on the columns. The results showed that increasing the stiffness of the surrounding structure and initial applied load level for the semi-rigid support conditions and both cross-sections, lead to a significant reduction of the critical temperature whereas for the pin-ended support conditions the reduction is supposed to be smaller.     

圆钢管及钢管混凝土柱的抗火设计

分别对圆钢管、钢管混凝土、中空夹层钢管混凝土柱进行了抗火设计,并对结果进行比较分析。结果表明,在较高荷载比下柱的耐火极限不能满足实际要求,必须进行防火保护。在相同条件下,耐火极限从大到小排序为:圆钢管混凝土、中空夹层钢管混凝土、钢管柱。在一级耐火等级下,钢管混凝土柱和中空夹层钢管混凝土柱需要厚涂型钢结构防火涂料的厚度可比钢管柱分别少55%和18%以上。随着荷载比的减小或截面尺寸的增加,柱的耐火极限提高,需要的保护层厚度减小。对于钢管混凝土柱,若采用水泥砂浆保护层,其厚度是防火涂料的3倍及以上。     

外包薄壁钢管加固受火后混凝土柱偏压性能

为研究采用外包薄壁钢管、内灌自流平微膨胀灌浆料约束加固受火后钢筋混凝土柱的偏压性能,进行了2根未受火混凝土柱、2根受火后混凝土柱和6根受火后再加固的混凝土柱的受压试验研究,分析了不同荷载偏心率对外包薄壁钢管加固受火后钢筋混凝土柱偏压承载性能的影响规律。考虑外包薄壁钢管的约束效应和高温对混凝土损伤影响,给出了外包薄壁钢管加固受火后混凝土柱偏压承载力的简化计算方法。结果表明：荷载偏心率为0、0.87的混凝土柱受火90min后,其极限荷载分别降低了30.3%、47.4%;外包薄壁钢管对受火后混凝土轴压柱的加固效果较好,对偏压柱的加固效果略有降低,受火后荷载偏心率为0、0.87混凝土柱经加固后极限荷载分别比对应的未受火混凝土柱提高2%、降低4.7%;外包薄壁钢管加固可显著提高混凝土柱的延性;当荷载偏心率不超过1.07时,加固后试件的极限荷载随荷载偏心率的增加近似呈线性降低;提出的外包薄壁钢管加固受火后混凝土柱偏压承载力的简化计算方法,其计算结果与试验结果吻合良好。     

Axial restraint effects on the fire resistance of composite columns encasing I-section steel

This paper presents an experimental study of the axial restraint effect on fire resistance of four unprotected encased I-section composite columns. Axial restraints were applied to simulate thermal restraints from adjoining cool structures onto a heated composite column in a compartment. These real-sized 3.54 m long columns were subjected to concentric axial force at a load ratio of 0.7 at normal ambient temperature. Different degrees of axial restraint are investigated. An electric furnace was used to apply four-face heating condition on the columns for approximating a realistic fire scenario. All columns failed in flexural buckling mode. In the later part of the paper, finite element simulations were conducted to compare with test results. Numerical predictions of both temperature distribution and structural response during heating agree reasonably well with experimental data. Both test results and numerical analyses show that axial restraint significantly reduces the column fire resistance. Moreover, it was also observed that during heating all specimens underwent concrete spalling at mid-height, which noticeably decreased the fire resistance. Column critical times are also predicted according to Eurocode 4 Part 1.2, which are consistently shorter than the numerical predictions.     

Experimental study on local buckling of fire-resisting steel columns under fire load

The structural behavior of stub columns using fire-resistant steel has been investigated experimentally under uniform fire load. The newly-developed fire-resistant steel is proven to have higher strength at elevated temperature than that of conventional steel. Also, the requirement of fire-protection in the fire-resisting steel can be released or relaxed as compared with conventional steel structures. However, the design criteria for the application of the fire-resisting steel in steel columns are still limited. To examine the structural behavior of this type of steel columns under fire load, a total of 24 stub column specimens, including both box columns and H columns, reached their limit states due to axial load under fire condition. The main purpose of these studies is to evaluate the variations of the ultimate strength of steel columns due to different width-to-thickness ratios under specified elevated temperature; in addition, to investigate the reduction effects on column strength resulting in the increasing temperature; and finally, to establish the design guidelines of steel columns using fire-resisting steel. From the experimental results, it is found that the ultimate loads of the stub columns decrease while the width-to-thickness ratios or the temperature increases. However, with the increase of temperature, the effect of the width-to-thickness ratio on ultimate strength decreases. It is also found that the effect of the width-to-thickness ratio on the ultimate strength of box column at elevated temperature is more significant than that of H column. Based on these studies, design guidelines are proposed for the requirement of the width-to-thickness ratios of both box column and H column fabricated from fire-resisting steel.     

Experimental study on the fire resistance of steel columns protected with fire boards

The thickness of the fire protection material of steel columns should be determined to guarantee the load-bearing capacity of the steel columns during a fire. In Korean standards, the strength capacity of steel columns is evaluated by measuring the axial deflection or surface temperature of only one H-section of 300x300x10x15 or similar dimensions in a fire test. Once the thickness of a fire protection material is approved, it can be applied to any section, regardless of the size and shape. However, in order to properly protect a building from a severe fire, the appropriate thickness of the fire protection material should be determined with consideration of the section factor, size and shape of steel columns in accordance with building regulations. This paper describes a series of full-scale and small-scale fire tests which were conducted on H-section and Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) steel columns protected with glass fiber reinforced gypsum (GRG) boards and cellulose fiber reinforced cement (CRC) boards. The main factors of the fire tests were the section factor, the section shape and the thickness of the fire protection materials. Simple equations to predict the thickness of a fire protection material of steel sections, accounting for the shape factor and the required fire resistance, are proposed. A comparative study on the efficiency between the newly developed columns with two types of fire boards and the conventional columns with a combination of spray and gypsum boards was also conducted, and results are reported herein.     

Experimental study on local buckling of axially compressed steel stub columns at elevated temperatures

There are few design provisions in codes and standards on local buckling of steel columns under fire conditions. To examine the local stability of steel stub columns at elevated temperatures, 12 stub columns were tested under simultaneous application of load and fire conditions. The test variables included Grade (type) of steel, buckling resistance, temperature and load levels. During fire tests, cross sectional temperatures, axial displacement, buckling deflection, and local buckling failure modes of flange and web of stub columns were recorded at various temperatures. Data from the tests is utilized to evaluate buckling resistance of flange and web both at room and elevated temperatures by applying the ultimate strain method and curve inflexion point method. Results from fire tests are utilized to validate a finite element model developed for tracing local buckling of steel columns at elevated temperatures. Results from fire tests and finite element analysis show that failure mode of columns at room and elevated temperatures follow similar pattern but the load bearing capacity of Q460 steel columns degrade much more rapidly under fire conditions than that of Q235 steel columns. Further, Eurocode 3 provisions for local buckling produce non-conservative results in certain situations.     

角钢加固钢筋混凝土柱耐火极限试验研究

外包角钢加固法可有效提高构件承载力且不显著增大构件截面,在实际工程中得到广泛应用。由于构件承受的荷载较原构件提高,加固角钢靠近外部受火面,且角钢外部保护层在高温下极易剥落,导致加固柱的耐火能力较差。本文进行了4根外包角钢加固钢筋混凝土柱的抗火性能试验,获得了构件截面温度场分布、变形-时间曲线、构件破坏模式和耐火极限,考察了荷载比和偏心率对耐火极限的影响。同时,建立了有限元分析模型,对外包角钢加固钢筋混凝土柱的抗火性能进行了模拟。试验结果表明：①环氧树脂在高温下汽化、自燃和碳化,对构件截面温度场影响较大|②砂浆保护层在高温下与钢材粘结较差,剥落严重|③构件的耐火极限随着荷载比和偏心率的增大而减小|④正常使用情况下,未加防火保护的外包角钢加固钢筋混凝土柱耐火能力达不到规范所要求的耐火极限。有限元分析结果与试验结果基本吻合,可用于进一步的参数分析。     

Performance of insulated FRP-strengthened concrete flexural members under fire conditions

This paper presents the results of fire resistance tests on carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) strengthened concrete flexural members, i.e., T-beams and slabs. The strengthened members were protected with fire insulation and tested under the combined effects of thermal and structural loading. The variables considered in the tests include the applied load level, extent of strengthening, and thickness of the fire insulation applied to the beams and slabs. Furthermore, a previously developed numerical model was validated against the data generated from the fire tests; subsequently, it was utilized to undertake a case study. Results from fire tests and numerical studies indicate that owing to the protection provided by the fire insulation, the insulated CFRP-strengthened beams and slabs can withstand four and three hours of standard fire exposure, respectively, under service load conditions. The insulation layer impedes the temperature rise in the member; therefore, the CFRP–concrete composite action remains active for a longer duration and the steel reinforcement temperature remains below 400°C, which in turn enhances the capacity of the beams and slabs.     

Residual strength of concrete-filled RHS columns after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire

The residual strength of a composite column may be used to assess the potential damage caused by fire and help to establish an approach to calculate the structural fire protection for minimum post-fire repair. The behavior of six rectangular hollow structural steel (RHS) columns filled with concrete, with or without fire protection, after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire (ISO 834, 1975), subjected to axial or eccentric loads have been experimentally investigated and the results presented in this paper. Comparisons are made with predicted column strengths using the existing codes such as LRFD-AISC-1994, AIJ-1997, EC4-1996 and GJB4142-2000. It was found, in general, that the loss of the strength of the specimens without protections was significantly greater than that of columns with fire protection. A mechanics model is developed in this paper for concrete-filled RHS columns after exposure to the ISO-834 Standard Fire (ISO 834, 1975), and is a development of the analysis used for ambient condition (Han et al., 2001). The predicted load versus mid-span deflection relationship for the composite columns is in good agreement with test results. Based on the theoretical model, influence of the changing strength of the materials, fire duration time, sectional dimensions, steel ratio, load eccentricity ratio, depth-to-width ratio and slenderness ratio on the residual strength index (RSI) is discussed. It was found that, in general, the slenderness ratio, sectional dimensions and the fire duration time have a significant influence on the residual strength index (RSI). However, the steel ratio, the depth-to-width ratio, the load eccentricity ratio and the strength of the materials have a moderate influence on RSI. Finally, formulas suitable for incorporation into a building code, for the calculation of the residual strength of the concrete-filled RHS columns after exposure to ISO-834 standard fire is developed based on the parametric analysis results.     

Experimental investigation on ferritic stainless steel columns in fire

This paper presents the performance of EN 1.4003 ferritic stainless steel hollow section columns when exposed to fire loading. Experimental analysis of the behaviour of ferritic stainless steel structural members in fire represents a novelty. In detail, three column tests were carried out in the framework of the Research Fund of Coal and Steel (RFCS) project named Structural Applications of Ferritic Stainless Steels (SAFSS, RFSR-CT-2010-00026). Tubular thin-walled members were considered in this study because structural applications of ferritic stainless steels generally incorporate such profiles. Three columns were tested: two square hollow sections (SHS) and a rectangular hollow section (RHS) of different length. Fire loading was applied under a constant concentrically compressive load. Identical column tests at room temperature are also reported.     

轻质防护的装配钢柱耐火性能试验研究

为研究装配式钢结构柱的耐火性能,开展不同壁厚的方钢管柱在不同防火保护方式、不同荷载比、轴心及偏心受力情况下的耐火性能试验,分析了装配钢柱火灾下的试验现象、破坏形态,探讨了钢柱壁厚对升温的影响、防火保护对耐火极限的影响、钢柱变形特点及耐火极限,对装配式钢结构防火保护提出建议。     

议封闭式圆形煤堆场的消防设计

针对目前室内圆形煤堆场的消防保护措施存在的不同程度缺陷,从建筑结构、泄压、消防设施、除尘等方面,提出相应的消防措施,对今后火电设计规范修订提出自己的建议。