A new method of producing high strength oil palm shell lightweight concrete

This paper presents a new method to produce high strength lightweight aggregate concrete (HSLWAC) using an agricultural solid waste, namely oil palm shell (OPS). This method is based on crushing large old OPS. Crushed OPS are hard and have a strong physical bond with hydrated cement paste. The 28 and 56 days compressive strength achieved in this study were about 53 and 56 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, it was observed that it was possible to produce grade 30 OPS concrete without the addition of any cementitious materials. Compared to previous studies, significantly lower cement content was used to produce this grade of concrete. Unlike OPS concrete incorporating uncrushed OPS aggregate, this study found that there is a strong correlation between the short term and 28-day compressive strength.     

Concept selection of car bumper beam with developed hybrid bio-composite material

Application of natural fibre composites is going to increase in different areas caused by environmental, technical and economic advantages. However, their low mechanical properties have limited their particular application in automotive structural components. Hybridizations with other reinforcements or matrices can improve mechanical properties of natural fibre composite. Moreover, geometric optimizations have a significant role in structural strength improvement. This study focused on selecting the best geometrical bumper beam concept to fulfill the safety parameters of the defined product design specification (PDS). The mechanical properties of developed hybrid composite material were considered in different bumper beam concepts with the same frontal curvature, thickness, and overall dimensions. The low-speed impact test was simulated under the same conditions in Abaqus V16R9 software. Six weighted criteria, which were deflection, strain energy, mass, cost, easy manufacturing, and the rib possibility were analyzed to form an evaluation matrix. Topsis method was employed to select the best concept. It is concluded that double hat profile (DHP) with defined material model can be used for bumper beam of a small car. In addition, selected concept can be strengthened by adding reinforced ribs or increasing the thickness of the bumper beam to comply with the defined PDS.     

Effect of ground granulate blast-furnace slag on corrosion performance of steel embedded in concrete

Corrosion of steel in concrete is one of the major causes of premature deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, leading to structural failure. To prevent the failure of concrete structures because of corrosion, impermeable and high performance concretes should be produced various mineral admixtures. In this study, plain and reinforced concrete members are produced with mineral admixtures replacing cement. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) has replaced cement as mineral admixture at the ratios of 0%, 25% and 50%. The related tests have been conducted at the ages of 28 and 90, after exposing these produced plain and reinforced concrete members to two different curing conditions. The unit weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity, splitting tensile and compressive strength tests are conducted on plain concrete members. Half-cell potential and accelerated corrosion tests are also conducted on reinforced concrete members. According to the test results, it is concluded that the curing age and type are important and corrosion resistant concrete can be produced by using GGBFS mineral admixture at the ratio of 25%.     

Effect of steel fibres on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete

Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) became in the recent decades a very popular and attractive material in structural engineering because of its good mechanical performance. The most important advantages are hindrance of macrocracks’ development, delay in microcracks’ propagation to macroscopic level and the improved ductility after microcracks’ formation. SFRC is also tough and demonstrates high residual strengths after appearing of the first crack. This paper deals with a role of steel fibres having different configuration in combination with steel bar reinforcement. It reports on results of an experimental research program that was focused on the influence of steel fibre types and amounts on flexural tensile strength, fracture behaviour and workability of steel bar reinforced high-strength concrete beams. In the frame of the research different bar reinforcements (2∅6 mm and 2∅12 mm) and three types of fibres’ configurations (two straight with end hooks with different ultimate tensile strength and one corrugated) were used. Three different fibre contents were applied. Experiments show that for all selected fibre contents a more ductile behaviour and higher load levels in the post-cracking range were obtained. The study forms a basis for selection of suitable fibre types and contents for their most efficient combination with regular steel bar reinforcement.     

Properties of self-compacting concrete containing class F fly ash

An experimental program was carried out to study the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) made with Class F fly ash. The mixes were prepared with five percentages of class F fly ash ranging from 15% to 35%. Properties investigated were self-compactability parameters (slump flow, J-ring, V-funnel, L-box and U-box), strength properties (compressive and splitting tensile strength), and durability properties (deicing salt surface scaling, carbonation and rapid chloride penetration resistance).     

Investigation into material optimization and development for improved ravelling resistant porous asphalt concrete

Ravelling, the loss of aggregate from the pavement surface, is the dominant defect of noise reducing porous asphalt wearing courses. Meso-mechanical simulations of porous asphalt concrete (PAC) under a moving tyre passage were performed to get insight into the in-mixture stresses. The simulation results showed that ravelling developed over a wide range of temperatures and that particularly low or high temperatures were critical. Ravelling resistance at high temperatures strongly depends on the confining stresses that follow from the pavement deflection. However, the tensile strains induced by the combined effect of pavement deflection and thermal contraction are the main cause for ravelling at low temperatures. Material optimization by changing mortar or bitumen properties can result in a significant improvement on ravelling resistance. A flexible bituminous binder with ample relaxation behaviour showed to give an optimal performance for ravelling resistance. Adhesive failure and cohesive failure are the failure mechanisms within the stone contact and the weak link is responsible for ravelling. Adhesive failure is predominant at low temperatures, while cohesive failure is the main cause at high temperatures. Aging mainly enhances the high-temperature ravelling performance, but dramatically degrades low-temperature ravelling performance.     

Enhancement and prediction of modulus of elasticity of palm kernel shell concrete

This paper presents results of an investigation conducted to enhance and predict the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of palm kernel shell concrete (PKSC). Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis on palm kernel shell (PKS) was conducted. Further, the effect of varying sand and PKS contents and mineral admixtures (silica fume and fly ash) on compressive strength and MOE was investigated. The variables include water-to-binder (w/b) and sand-to-cement (s/c) ratios. Nine concrete mixes were prepared, and tests on static and dynamic moduli of elasticity and compressive strength were conducted.     

Microstructure and properties of austenitic stainless steel reinforced with in situ TiC particulate

Austenitic stainless steel reinforced with 5 vol.% TiC particulate was in situ synthesized by in situ reaction during melting process successfully and its microstructure, mechanical properties as well as oxidation behavior were investigated. Microstructure observations revealed that in situ TiC particulates with an average size of 2–10 μm distributed uniformly in the matrix and the interface boundaries between TiC particulates and austenite matrix were clean without any impurities and contaminations. Addition of TiC particulates refined the grain structure of austenitic matrix, but did not cause formation of any new phases in microstructure. Beneficial effects of TiC addition to austenitic stainless steel on both mechanical properties and oxidation resistance were found. Both at ambient and elevated temperature, tensile strengths of the steel with TiC addition were notably higher than those of its matrix alloy, however, a decrease in ductility also appeared, as exhibited by other particulate reinforced alloys. Besides tensile strengths, creep resistance of austenitic stainless steel was also significantly increased by TiC addition at elevated temperature of 923 K. Oxidation test at 1073 K revealed that TiC addition to austenitic stainless steel raised the oxidation resistance of the steel remarkably.     

Fabrication and mechanical properties of homogeneous zirconia toughened alumina ceramics via cyclic solution infiltration and in situ precipitation

Alumina ceramic composites toughened with various contents of fine-sized zirconia particulates were fabricated via cyclic infiltrating pre-sintered alumina preforms with zirconium oxychloride solution and immersion in ammonia solution to induce in situ precipitation. Homogeneous distribution of zirconia throughout the bulk material has been substantiated by line-scan analysis and backscattering images taken from sections with different distances from surface. It was found that a higher drying temperature and increase in infiltration numbers lead to a greater zirconia content and bigger grain size. The hardness of fabricated zirconia toughened alumina composite was firstly improved probably due to the microstructure refining effect, while a further increase in zirconia content results in the decrease of hardness. A significantly higher indentation toughness has been observed for samples containing >10 wt.% zirconia compared with other specimens, which could be attributed to the coarser zirconia grain size and the related greater tendency to transformation into monoclinic phase.     

Development of slate fiber reinforced high density polyethylene composites for injection molding

During the last decade the use of fiber reinforced composite materials has consolidated as an attracting alternative to traditional materials due to an excellent balance between mechanical properties and lightweight. One drawback related to the use of inorganic fibers such as those derived from siliceous materials is the relative low compatibility with conventional organic polymer matrices. Surface treatments with coupling agents and the use of copolymers allow increasing fiber–matrix interactions which has a positive effect on overall properties of composites. In this research work we report the use of slate fiber treated with different coupling agents as reinforcement for high density polyethylene from sugarcane. A silane (propyltrimethoxy silane; PTMS) and a graft copolymer (polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride; PE-g-MA) were used to improve fiber–matrix interactions on HDPE-slate fiber. The effect of the different compatibilizing systems and slate fiber content were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic thermomechanical analysis (DTMA) as well as mechanical properties (tensile, flexural and impact). The results show that the use of silane coupling agents leads to higher fiber–matrix interactions which has a positive effect on overall mechanical properties. Interesting results are obtained for composites containing 30 wt.% slate fiber previously treated with propyltrimethoxy silane (PTMS) with an increase in tensile and flexural strength of about 16% and 18% respectively.     

Microscopic, physical and mechanical analysis of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete

This investigation examined the reinforcing effects and mechanisms of polypropylene fiber (PF) on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to observe the crystal structures and that at the aggregate-cement interfacial transition zone. Physical and mechanical tests were performed to measure the effects of PF on improving concrete's engineering properties. Results indicate that PF significantly alters the microstructure of concrete, reduces the crystallization and orientation of Ca(OH)₂, and decreases micro-voids. Specifically, PF forms a network that restricts the growth of Ca(OH)₂, bridges cracking, and reallocates stresses. PF has reduced the amount and size of crystalline, and the micro-cracking at the aggregate-cement interfacial transition zone. As a result, PF has effectively improved concrete's compressive strength, flexural strength, bonding strength, dynamic performance, and fatigue life, while reduced the water penetration and abrasion mass loss. Results also indicate that a PF content of 0.9 kg/m³ has the optimum concrete performance output for the materials used in this study.     

Allyloxy-modified starch with low degree of substitution for fiber reinforced thermoset starch composites

In the present work dough moulding compound premixes of allyl glycidyl ether modified (AGE)-potato starch, (DS) = 0.2, has been prepared and tested for its fiber reinforced composite properties. The AGE-starch was hydrolyzed with α-amylase under neutral condition for 6 h at 45 °C for improved process ability. The grafting and hydrolytic scission was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), respectively. Homogeneous composite premixes of AGE-starch, wood fibers, various amount of glycerol and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate were successfully mixed with a Brabender-kneader at 55 °C and cured by compression molding at 150 °C using 2 wt% of dibenzoyl peroxide. Adding 5 wt% of glycerol did not reduce the ultimate strength of the composites; 10% glycerol reduced the strength from 60 MPa to 40 MPa, and 16% glycerol to 14 MPa. The results with 5 wt% glycerol are comparable with earlier achieved results. The water absorption rate increased with increased glycerol content and the mechanical strength of the composites was lost completely when the moisture uptake reached 15 wt%.     

钢筋钢纤维混凝土梁柱节点模型化方法研究

为研究钢筋钢纤维混凝土梁柱节点抗震性能数值模拟方法,基于OpenSEES有限元平台中的梁柱节点单元(beam-column joint element, BCJE)模型,通过修正模型中剪切块和钢筋滑移弹簧的参数修正方法,提出适用于钢筋钢纤维混凝土梁柱节点的数值模型,并基于6个梁柱节点的拟静力试验结果进行模型验证分析,数值模拟结果与试验结果吻合较好,提出的数值模型能够较精确地反映节点滞回行为。在此基础上,分析了轴压比、钢纤维体积率和配箍量对梁柱节点抗震性能的影响规律,建立了节点受剪承载力的计算公式。结果表明:掺入钢纤维和增加配箍可明显改善梁柱节点的抗震性能,钢纤维体积率从0.5%增加到2.0%,极限荷载提高了18%;箍筋从1Φ8增加到3Φ8时,极限荷载提高了19.7%。     

Effect of reinforced fiber length on the joint performance of thermoplastic leaf spring

Joint strength plays a significant role in the performance of leaf spring suspension system. Current work reported the influence of reinforced fiber length on the performance of injection molded thermoplastic leaf spring joint. Leaf springs were molded using 20% short, long glass fiber reinforced polypropylene as well as unreinforced polypropylene and evaluated for the joint strength. Servo hydraulic test facility with suitable fixture is utilized to evaluate the leaf spring joint performance under static and dynamic conditions. Test joints were subjected to completely reversed fatigue loads, wherein long fiber reinforced leaf spring joint exhibited superior performance at high cycle fatigue conditions than that of short fiber reinforced and unreinforced polypropylene leaf spring joints. However, at low cycle fatigue loading conditions, unreinforced and short glass fiber reinforced leaf spring exhibited superior performance than that of long glass fiber reinforced leaf spring joint. High notch sensitivity characteristics of the long glass fiber reinforced polypropylene material contributed to this inferior performance. Load–deflection hysteresis plot of the long glass fiber reinforced leaf spring joint under fatigue loading conditions exhibited a lesser amount of hole elongation compared to that of short glass fiber and unreinforced leaf spring joint. Failure morphology of tested joint under fatigue condition exhibited net-tension and shear-out failures besides bearing damages.     

Non-linear ultrasonic evaluation of damaged concrete based on higher order harmonic generation

Non-linear ultrasonic testing, based on higher order harmonic generation, is a true mean for nondestructive evaluation of concrete allowing damage detection at early stages of damage. Using conventional non-destructive testing methods like pulse echo, velocity and impact echo for evaluation of such damages is difficult because poor sensitivity of these methods to early damage occurrence. In this paper an experimental investigation of 18 cubic concrete specimens, caste with three different water–cement ratios, using non-linear ultrasonic technique is presented. The specimens were ultrasonically evaluated both in damaged and undamaged conditions. The specimens were damaged progressively by loading them under compression in several steps up to their ultimate load bearing capacity. At the end of each loading step ultrasonic evaluation was performed and time domain waveforms were recorded at different power levels. Frequency spectra were prepared by performing Fast Fourier Transformation of the recorded time domain waveforms. The frequency spectra were used to obtain the first three harmonic amplitudes. The captured harmonic amplitudes were used to calculate the second and third harmonic ratios. Comparison of the harmonic ratios has shown the extraordinary sensitivity of the non-linear ultrasonic method, used in this study, to early damage detection. It was also observed that this sensitivity further increases as water cement ratio increases.     

Flexural strength and translucent characteristics of lithium disilicate glass–ceramics with different P2O5 content

Lithium disilicate glass–ceramics derived from the SiO₂–Li₂O–K₂O–Al₂O₃–ZrO₂–P₂O₅ system with different P₂O₅ content (from 0.5 mol.% to 2.0 mol.% at a step of 0.5 mol.%) were prepared for dental restorative application. Flexural strength of final glass–ceramics and translucent characteristics expressed in term of contrast ratio (CR) were measured. The interrelations between P₂O₅ content, microstructure and properties were discussed. Glass–ceramic with a P₂O₅ content of 1.0 mol.%, in which elongated rod-like Li₂Si₂O₅ crystals formed an interlocking microstructure, showed the highest flexural strength and suitable contrast ratio for dental restorative application.     

Assessment of factors influencing mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete

In the last decade the steel fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete (SFRSCC) has been used in several partially and fully structural applications. This study investigates how the inclusion of steel fibers affects the properties of SFRSCC. For this purpose, an extensive experimental program including different cement contents of 400, 450 and 500 kg/m³, two maximum aggregate sizes of 10 and 20 mm along with steel fiber volume fractions of 0%, 0.38%, 0.64% and 1% was conducted. The water/cement ratio was kept constant at 0.45 for all the mixes studied. Mechanical properties were tested for compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths and modulus of elasticity. The results showed that mixture characteristics and volume fraction of steel fibers can significantly affect these major properties. Furthermore, this study represents extensive comparisons using database that have been gathered from a wide variety of international sources reported by many researchers and data obtained experimentally, which came up with about some discrepancies in the results.     

Influence of processing conditions on bending property of continuous carbon fiber reinforced PEEK composites

The purpose of this study is to achieve an optimum fabrication condition for the continuous carbon fiber reinforced PEEK matrix composites based on a micro-braiding fabrication method. The composite plates were fabricated at three processing temperatures (380, 410 and 440 °C) and three holding times (20, 40 and 60 min), respectively, with a total number of nine different fabrication conditions, and their bending properties were investigated in terms of thermal and fracture characterizations. As a result, the bending performance of the fabricated composites was significantly affected at the 440 °C temperature. Although no significant change in the bending performance was seen at the 380 and 410 °C with all the holding times, the thermal and fracture characterizations implied a degradation of the PEEK matrix property during the fabrication process. In order to avoid the matrix degradation and the decrease of mechanical properties, a lower fabrication temperature with a shorter holding time should be recommended for the carbon/PEEK composites fabricated by the micro-braiding method.     

A wire-woven cellular metal: Part-I, optimal design for applications as sandwich core

Wire-woven Bulk Kagome (WBK) is a new truss type cellular metal fabricated by systematic assembling of helical wires in six directions. WBK looks promising with respect to morphology, fabrication cost, and raw materials. In this paper, first, the geometry and the effect of the geometry such as the curved shape of the struts, which compose the truss structure of WBK, are elaborated. Then, analytic solutions for the material properties of WBK and the maximum loads withstood by a WBK-cored sandwich panel under bending are derived. Design optimization is carried out in two ways: one is based on the weight of the sandwich panel, and the other is based on the slenderness ratio of the WBK core. The performance of the WBK is evaluated and compared with those of other periodic cellular metals. With designs fully optimized with respect to the first way mentioned, the WBK-cored panel outperformed the octet counter part. With a specified constraint on the core thickness, the WBK truss core panel performed as well as a honeycomb cored panel.     

In-plane shear behavior of insulated precast concrete sandwich panels reinforced with corrugated GFRP shear connectors

Precast concrete sandwich panels often are used for the exterior cladding of residential and commercial buildings due to their thermal efficiency. Precast concrete sandwich panel systems consist of two precast reinforced concrete walls that are separated by a layer of insulation and joined by connectors that penetrate the insulation layer and are anchored to two precast concrete wythes. This paper presents push-out test results of concrete sandwich panels with and without corrugated shear connectors to investigate in-plane shear performance. The variables in this study are two types of insulation materials and the width, pitch, and embedment length of shear connectors. The test results indicate that the type of insulation material that is used in the system considerably affects the bond strength between the concrete walls and the insulation layer. A design equation adopted in ICC-ES is revised to determine the shear design capacity of precast concrete sandwich panels with various configurations of shear connectors.