Very high cycle fatigue of nitrided 18Ni maraging steel sheet

Thin sheets of nitrided 18Ni maraging steel are tested under cyclic tension (load ratio R = 0.1) in the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regime. The ultrasonic fatigue testing method with a cycling frequency of about 20 kHz has been further developed for these experiments. Sheet specimens with 0.35 mm thickness are mounted on a carrier specimen, they are pre-stressed and are forced to vibrate jointly. Between 10⁷ and 10⁹ cycles, fatigue cracks are initiated exclusively at internal TiN inclusions. The areas of the crack initiating inclusions projected perpendicular to the applied tensile stress are evaluated. The square root of inclusion areas, (area_INC)^1/2 lies between 2.5 μm and 5.3 μm. Considering inclusions as cracks, their stress intensity range is between ΔK_INC = 1.3 MPa m^1/2 and 2.4 MPa m^1/2. The sizes of crack initiating inclusions influence fatigue lifetimes. This is considered in a crack propagation model and by presenting lifetimes versus the stress amplitudes multiplied by (area_INC)^1/12. A mean lifetime of 10⁹ cycles is found at a stress amplitude of 22% of the tensile strength, which is comparable to other high strength steels tested under cyclic tension.     

晶粒尺寸对18Ni马氏体时效钢力学性能的影响

为解决我国某国防用高精密弹性件材料强韧性不足的问题,研究了不同尺寸的对１８Ｎｉ（１７５０ＭＰａ级）马氏体时效钢力学性能的影响。通过循环相应细化奥氏体晶粒到不同尺寸,在相同时效处理规程下进行时效处理,机械性能测试表明,晶粒细化是提高１８Ｎｉ马氏体时效钢强度和塑性伯一种有效手段。     

Evaluation of giga-cycle fatigue properties of some maraging steels by intermittent ultrasonic fatigue testing

ABSTRACT In evaluating the giga-cycle fatigue strength of some high strength steels, information on the size distribution of nonmetallic inclusions contained in the material is indispensable. To save time and effort of obtaining such data concerning the inclusions, a convenient dissolution method to evaluate the maximum inclusion size is proposed, in place of a conventional method of measuring the inclusion sizes on many cross-sectional areas. Meanwhile, to save time-consuming work of obtaining giga-cycle fatigue properties of some metallic materials, an intermittent ultrasonic fatigue testing method has also been developed. In the present paper, these two newly developed methods were successfully combined to assess the long life fatigue properties of maraging steels as a function of inclusion size.     

Fracture mechanism and model of 18Ni maraging steel

ABSTRACT

18Ni maraging steel is normally used to make key components by machining processes. It is necessary to understand the fracture mechanism and behaviour of 18Ni maraging steel for the study and further optimisation of machining processes. In this paper, the Split Hopkinson Tensile Bar tests accompanied by quasi-static mechanical tests are carried out to relate the stress triaxiality, deformation temperature and strain rate with the fracture strain. During the building up of the fracture model, it is noticed that the change of fracture mechanism from 600°C to 900°C brings about a non-linear relationship of fracture strain with the deformation temperature. This results in a large error in fitting the Johnson–Cook (J-C) fracture model, so a modified fracture model is put forward.     

Post‐treatment selection for tailored fatigue performance of 18Ni300 maraging steel manufactured by laser powder bed fusion

This study investigates the fatigue behaviour of additively manufactured 18Ni300 maraging steel. Specifically, the surface and material parameters impacting fatigue performance are analysed through various post‐treatment combinations. Vertically built miniaturised test samples produced by laser powder bed fusion are tested in as‐built and age‐hardening heat‐treated conditions. To utilise the potential of using additive manufacturing for complex‐shaped parts in which conventional machining tools could have limited access, vibratory finishing and sand blasting are employed. The fatigue results show that in as‐built microstructural condition, both the surface treatments significantly enhanced the fatigue performance, with vibratory finishing outperforming sand blasting owing to better surface finish. After heat treatment, sand‐blasted samples performed better than vibratory‐finished ones because of higher residual stresses. This competing interaction between post‐treatments sheds light on identifying the relative influence of various factors. With systematic postfracture and microstructural analyses highlighting the fatigue influencing factors, recommendations are drawn to select post‐treatments to achieve the desired fatigue performance.     

Metallurgical characteristics of electroslag-refined MDN 250 maraging steel

MDN-250 maraging steel was electroslag-refined in a 350 kVA DC ESR unit using a slag of composition, CaF₂-65, CaO-9, Al₂O₃-2O, TiO₂-5, and MoO₃-1 (wt % basis) in straight as well as reverse polarity modes of melting. The chemical homogeneity of the ingots was established by X-ray fluorescence, plasma scan and spectrovac methods. The dissolved gas content (O and N) in the ingots was determined by a LECO gas analyser. Volume fraction, density and size distribution of inclusions in the ingots and the electrode were determined in a Quantimet image analyser. These results were supplemented by EPMA and SEM studies on selected inclusions. Mechanical properties of the ingots in the heat-treated and aged conditions were assessed and compared with those of the electrode material. The present results confirm that the reverse polarity mode of melting is best suited for producing quality maraging steels for the ingots produced by this mode of melting were found to possess superior metallurgical characteristics in terms of cleanliness and mechanical properties compared to those produced by the straight polarity ESR route and other conventional methods.     

Very high cycle fatigue properties of high‐strength spring steel 60SiCrV7

The very high cycle fatigue properties of spring steel 60SiCrV7 for automotive suspension system with different hydrogen contents were studied by using ultrasonic fatigue testing and fatigue crack growth testing. The results show that the S–N curves exhibit continuous drop of fatigue lives and no obvious horizontal line exists. Similar fracture surface features were observed for all the specimens that failed mainly from internal inclusions with surrounding granular bright facet (GBF). Fatigue strength decreases remarkably with increasing hydrogen content. The applied stress intensity factor range at the periphery of GBF ΔK_GBF is approximately proportional to 1/3 power of the square of GBF area. The average values of ΔK_GBF for uncharged specimens are close to crack growth threshold ΔK_th, which indicates that ΔK_GBF could be regarded as the threshold value governing the beginning of stable fatigue crack propagation. The increase of hydrogen content tends to reduce ΔK_GBF.     

Influence of the build orientation on the fatigue strength of EOS maraging steel produced by additive metal machine

This paper presents a research dealing with the dependence of the fatigue strength of maraging steel parts, manufactured by direct selective laser sintering, on the production build orientation. Three sets of specimens have been manufactured according to the ISO 1143 Standard (2010) by EOSINT M280 additive manufacturing machine, with the following heat and mechanical treatments, in agreement with the recommendations by the material manufacturer and current literature. The expected outcomes are the Fatigue Limit values of the material and the maximum number of cycles observed at different stress levels for three different build orientations (three different angles, 0°, 45° and 90°, between the build direction and the longitudinal axis of the samples). The results have been processed and compared by statistical methods in order to determine the fatigue curves in the finite life domain and the fatigue limits, along with their confidence bands and intervals, and to investigate the significance of the build orientation factor.     

Austenite reversion in 18% Ni maraging steel and its weldments

In the heat-treated condition, 18% Ni maraging steels have a microstructure of aged martensite and essentially no austenite. However, austenite can form if the material is overaged. This has been termed as austenite reversion, a subject which has received much attention, because it importantly influences properties and performance of the steel. Reversion of austenite in fusion zones of weld joints in these steels has also been widely studied. Because of microsegregation, austenite reversion in the fusion zone is accelerated. Reverted austenite in the fusion zone strongly influences the performance of the weld joints. The present review critically analyses the published work on austenite reversion and its effects on properties and performance, covering both base metal and weld joints.     

Ultrasonic fatigue testing of cast steel G42CrMo4 at elevated temperatures

The fatigue life of cast steel G42CrMo4 in two different heat treatment conditions was investigated at room temperature (RT), 473 K and 773 K up to the range of very high cycle fatigue (VHCF), that is, 10⁹ cycles. The fatigue life is determined by casting defects, the hardness of the steel matrix and by temperature. Fatigue life data were discussed in correlation with crack‐initiating defects analysed on fracture surfaces. The SN curves obtained at RT and at 473 K show a large scatter. However, the SN curve at 773 K exhibits a larger slope parameter and a significantly reduced scatter. It is shown that the fatigue behaviour of the cast steel G42CrMo4 changes from 473 to 773 K in the range of VHCF. The fatigue lives of the specimens tested at 773 K were described with a crack growth model.     

Corrosion fatigue behaviour and fracture mechanisms in nitrided low alloy steel

Rotary bending fatigue tests have been performed in 3%NaCl aqueous solution using specimens of a low alloy steel (Cr–Mo steel) with different nitride case depths. The effect of case depth on corrosion fatigue strength, the fracture process and mechanisms were studied. The corrosion fatigue strengths of the nitrided materials increased compared with the untreated material and increased with increasing thickness of the compound layer, but tended to saturate above a certain thickness. All the materials showed lower fatigue strength in 3%NaCl aqueous solution than in laboratory air and the reduction of fatigue strength decreased with increasing thickness of the compound layer, but remained nearly constant above a certain thickness. Corrosion pits were seen underneath the compound layer, from which cracks initiated. The corrosion fatigue strengths of the specimens whose compound layer was completely removed by electropolishing were almost the same as that of the untreated material, indicating a very significant role of the compound layer in improving corrosion fatigue strength. Because of the porous nature of the compound layer, particularly in the surface‐adjacent part, the solution penetrated the compound layer and reached the base steel, thus the corrosion fatigue strength of the nitrided materials was controlled by the penetration of corrosive media.     

热处理温度对新型马氏体时效不锈钢微观组织和性能的影响

针对一种以Al作为主要强化元素的新型马氏体时效不锈钢,通过力学性能测试、光学显微镜观察和透射电子显微分析方法,研究不同的热处理温度对实验钢力学性能和微观组织的影响。结果表明:该实验钢的抗拉强度最高可达1876MPa,屈服强度可达1762MPa,具有良好的强韧性配合。固溶处理后形成了具有高密度位错的细小板条马氏体组织,在时效过程中,马氏体基体上弥散析出的NiAl相使其强度得到大幅度的提升。随着时效温度的提高,NiAl析出相颗粒逐渐长大粗化,从而使强度在到达峰值后迅速下降,出现了过时效现象。实验钢经过820℃固溶+(-70℃)冷处理+540℃时效处理后可获得良好的综合力学性能。     

Effect of submillimeter size holes on the fatigue limit of a high strength tool steel

The very high cycle fatigue and small fatigue crack growth behaviour of a generic tool steel material for diesel fuel injector application are described. The small crack growth tests for the tool steel material with and without the hardening heat treatment revealed the mechanisms of crack propagation and threshold behaviour. Based on the small fatigue crack propagation threshold value, an elastic plastic fracture mechanics methodology for the prediction of the endurance limit of specimens with submillimeter holes is proposed. The advantages of the new methodology are discussed in relation to existing methodologies for endurance limit prediction of specimens with small holes.     

Influence of hydrogen content and microstructure on the fatigue behaviour of steel SAE 52100 in the VHCF regime

The fatigue life of the bearing steel 52100 (100Cr6) in bainite and martensite conditions was investigated up to 2 × 10⁹ cycles. The tests were performed under cycling tension (R = 0.1) and tension–compression (R = −1) on a piezo-electric ultrasonic testing equipment. The specimens are designed with a cylindrical part in the highly stressed centre. Due to grinding, compressive residual stresses are found at the surface, hence crack initiation solely occurs subsurface. Prior testing half of the specimens was charged with hydrogen. The hydrogen content varies from 0.6 as initial condition to 3 ppm after charging. The increased hydrogen content decreased the endurance limit to nearly half of the value of uncharged conditions and crack initiation changed: Conditions with low hydrogen content failed from chromium carbides, titanium nitrides or slag agglomerations. Conditions with 3 ppm hydrogen failed from slag agglomerations, often in combination with aluminium magnesium oxides, and manganese sulphides. Next to the inclusions a fine granular area (FGA) could be observed in some cases, and nearly all fractured surfaces showed a fisheye surrounded by an Optically Bright Zone (OBZ) with the crack initiating inclusion in its centre. Furthermore, selected specimens where analysed using secondary ion mass spectroscopy in a time of flight setup (ToF-SIMS) to ascertain the local hydrogen content. From the results it is assumed that hydrogen accumulates in the cavity at inclusions or bonds to the inclusion if it contains silicon.     

低温与真空条件下1Cr18Ni9Ti钢的疲劳行为

分别在室温大气、室温真空及低温真空几种环境条件下,对1Cr18Ni9Ti钢进行对称载荷拉-压疲劳试验,利用TEM观察疲劳断口附近的显微组织,研究了环境因素对疲劳性能的影响,并对影响的原因进行了分析和讨论.研究表明:1Cr18Ni9Ti钢在低温真空条件下疲劳性能显著提高;疲劳断口附近出现大量板条马氏体;真空与低温显著提高1Cr18Ni9Ti钢疲劳性能的原因与真空对裂纹表面的净化效应,以及低温促进疲劳裂纹前沿形成板条马氏体有关.     

Fracture behaviour of maraging steel tensile specimens and pressurized cylindrical vessels

A three‐parameter fracture criterion is applied for the development of a failure assessment diagram to maraging steels and its validity verified by considering the maraging steel fracture data of surface crack tension specimens (SCT) and pressure vessels having axial surface cracks. Fracture‐strength/failure‐pressure estimates based on this criterion are found to be in reasonably good agreement with test results.     

无钴马氏体时效钢电子束焊接缺陷的微观研究

为研究18Ni无钴马氏体时效钢电子束焊接缺陷的形成原因,对比分析了同一成分不同批次的两种无钴马氏体时效钢的基体及焊接接头,采用金相显微镜和扫描电镜观察了微观组织结构.研究表明:两种材料的晶粒大小差别较大,但基体组织均为细小板条马氏体组织,晶界分布有片状的奥氏体组织,晶体内部也有少量的奥氏体颗粒;焊缝组织为粗大柱状晶,熔合线附近热影响区组织发生了再结晶,晶粒已明显合并长大.晶粒大小和奥氏体含量的不同,是导致两试样导热性能不同的主要原因,对于导热性能差的材料,焊接时应尽量降低能量输入,减少熔池金属量,以防止焊接缺陷的出现.     

Low and high‐cycle fatigue properties of an ultrahigh‐strength TRIP bainitic steel

The scope of this study is to characterize the mechanical properties of a novel Transformation‐Induced Plasticity bainitic steel grade TBC700Y980T. For this purpose, tensile tests are carried out with loading direction 0, 45 and 90° with respect to the L rolling direction. Yield stress is found to be higher than 700 MPa, ultimate tensile strength larger than 1050 MPa and total elongation higher than 15%. Low‐cycle fatigue (LCF) tests are carried out under fully reverse axial strain exploring fatigue lives comprised between 10² and 10⁵ fatigue cycles. The data are used to determine the parameters of the Coffin–Manson as well as the cyclic stress–strain curve. No significant stress‐induced austenite transformation is detected. The high‐cycle fatigue (HCF) behaviour is investigated through load controlled axial tests exploring fatigue tests up to 5 × 10⁶ fatigue cycles at two loading ratios, namely R = ?1 and R = 0. At fatigue lives longer than 2 × 10⁵ cycles, the strain life curve determined from LCF tests tends to greatly underestimate the HCF resistance of the material. Apparently, the HCF behaviour of this material cannot be extrapolated from LCF tests, as different damage, cyclic hardening mechanisms and microstructural conditions are involved. In particular, in the HCF regime, the predominant damage mechanism is nucleation of fatigue cracks in the vicinity of oxide inclusions, whereby mean value and scatter in fatigue limit are directly correlated to the dimension of these inclusions.