Investigation of layered elastic theory prediction accuracy for asphalt concrete pavement design using micromechanical viscoelastic finite element modeling

In this study, predictions of full-scale micromechanical (MM) finite element (FE) models, developed from X-ray computed tomography images of asphalt concrete samples that were sawn from the accelerated pavement test sections, were used to evaluate the accuracy of layered elastic theory (LET) models that are used in pavement design today. First, MM FE and LET models were both calibrated using the measured strain gauge responses. Predictions of calibrated models were compared to evaluate the reasonableness of LET model outputs at high temperatures. Second, asphalt concrete stiffnesses measured in the laboratory were directly used for LET model development without performing any strain gauge calibration to evaluate the actual predictive capability of LET models in pavement design by using the calibrated MM FE model outputs as the ground truth. Recommendations were also made for future use of the MM FE models to improve the predictive capability of LET models.     

移动荷载下粘弹性层状沥青路面动力响应模型

交通荷载下沥青路面动力响应研究是建立路面动态设计体系的基础,是目前道路界研究的热点问题之一。将车辆荷载视为移动荷载,沥青路面结构视为层状体系结构,路面材料视为粘弹性材料,基于连续体系统动力学和线性理论,建立了沥青路面动力学模型。模型中将车轮荷载处理为间距足够大的周期荷载,采用Fourier 变换技术,在求解移动简谐荷载作用下沥青路面动力响应基础上,得到任意复杂分布形式的车轮荷载作用下的沥青路面动力响应。以一种典型的半刚性基层沥青路面为例,分析了其动力响应规律,与加速加载试验结果进行对比,在沥青面层底部动态应变时间历程曲线、动力响应横向分布规律和最大动应变数值等3 个方面,理论分析结果与试验结果吻合良好,验证了模型的可靠性。     

Optical fibre-based sensors for distributed strain monitoring of asphalt pavements

Strain distribution of asphalt pavement varies in transverse and longitudinal directions, and distresses, such as cracks, ruts and settlements, often occur randomly, which can be efficiently measured by distributed optical fibre sensing technology. As bare optical fibre is weak to resist shear and torsion forces during pavement construction, the protective technique is required. Therefore, a flexible asphalt-mastic packaged optical fibre sensor was developed in this research for distributed strain monitoring of asphalt pavement. Theoretical analysis on strain transfer of the optical fibre-based sensors embedded in asphalt pavement was conducted to improve the design of the protective layer and remove the strain transfer error. Afterwards, laboratory tests on the asphalt concrete beam were carried out to validate the performance of the sensor. Finally, the proposed sensors were applied to detect the in situ performance of urban asphalt pavement under temperature and traffic loads. The results indicate that the proposed optical fibre sensor detects the distributed strain of asphalt pavement effectively, and the in situ data show significant effects of temperature and traffic loads on asphalt concrete course. This research contributes to the full-scale monitoring and health assessment of large-span pavement.     

Dynamic model and criteria indices of semi-rigid base asphalt pavement

This paper presents a dynamic model of asphalt pavement by considering the characteristics of moving tyre load, visco-elastic performance of material and layered system of pavement. The pavement is defined as an infinite layered system with the tyre load moving at a constant speed, and asphalt concrete (AC) is characterised as a kind of visco-elastic material. Using the spectrum analysis method, a complex tyre load is decomposed into a series of harmonic loads. Based on the frequency characteristics of a linear system, a universal formulation pattern for differential visco-elastic constitutive relations is provided. And then, a model is set up to analyse the dynamic response of asphalt pavement under moving harmonic load, and then to extend to the arbitrary moving load according to the superposition principle of a linear system. The dynamic responses of seven typical semi-rigid base asphalt pavements are analysed using the model. Analysis results indicate that the tensional strain at the bottom of the AC layer and the vertical compression strain at the top of the roadbed are not suitable for key indices of the semi-rigid base asphalt pavement. The shearing strain at the bottom of the AC layer can be taken as a key index to evaluate the fatigue performance, and the vertical compression strain at the top of the pavement surface can be taken as a key index to evaluate pavement rutting, and the vertical shearing strain at the top of pavement surface can be taken as a key index to evaluate top–down crack.     

车桥耦合下钢桥面沥青铺装层动力响应研究

为了研究钢桥面沥青铺装层的动力响应,将车辆车体看成刚体并以匀速进行运动,车辆悬架与车轮均视为由弹簧和阻尼器所组成,将桥面沥青铺装层和钢板视为双层连续粘弹性薄板,并以铺装层表面不平度作为系统的附加激励,车辆和桥面铺装层间采用点接触模型,最终建立车辆-沥青铺装层-钢桥耦合动力学模型,进而采用Wilson-θ法求解系统方程组。在此基础上,应用Fortran语言实现模型的计算,并结合现场测试结果验证程序的准确性和可靠性。研究结果表明：对于钢桥面沥青铺装层,移动车辆产生的动力效应显著,随着后轴轴重的增加,铺装层表面应变幅值和铺装层与钢板间的最大剪应力呈线性增加;随着行车速度增加,铺装层表面应变幅值和铺装层与钢板间的最大剪应力上下波动变化,但两者均在60 km/h的行车速度下数值达到最大;桥梁跨径和桥面宽度对铺装层表面应变幅值和铺装层与钢板间最大剪应力的影响较为显著,桥梁跨径的影响尤为明显。     

Hierarchical asphalt pavement deterioration model for climate impact studies

Quantification of the impacts of projected climate change on road pavement performance is possible using predictive models that correctly consider key causal factors of pavement deterioration. These factors include climate, traffic, properties of materials and the design of pavements. This paper presents a new model developed to predict rutting in asphalt surfacing. In addition to the key causal factors of road deterioration, the developed model takes into account several sources of uncertainties, particularly those inherent in future climate change predictions and model input parameters. The asphalt surfacing rut depth progression model was developed from a hierarchical road network data structure using a Bayesian regression approach resulting in a model for each surfacing group. The model was applied within a Monte Carlo simulation framework to derive probabilistic outputs of pavement rut depth progression and maintenance costs under the pre-determined future climate scenarios. This model is useful for application at both the network and project levels to develop road management strategies and policies.     

Analysis of measured strain response of asphalt pavements and relevant prediction models

In order to investigate the actual strain response of asphalt pavement under real condition, three types of asphalt pavement sections with typical surface structures are built. The effects of axle configuration, axle load, speed and testing temperature on strain response of asphalt pavement were analysed through in situ dynamic loading. Experimental results indicate that the strain response at the bottom of the asphalt surface layer increases with increasing axle load and temperature, but decreases with the rise of speed. On the other hand, the temperature exerts different influence levels on pavement sections with different structures. It is also concluded that the tandem axle load could lead to a greater strain response than that of single axle load. Applying the analysis of variance, the effects of pavement surface temperature, axle load, speed and their double interactions are studied as well. Finally, the paper proposes prediction models of the strain response at the bottom of asphalt layer by means of multivariate regression analysis.     

Effect of full-size and down-scaled accelerated traffic loading on pavement behavior

Accelerated pavement testing (APT) is an effective testing procedure to evaluate asphalt pavements. With APT it is possible to determine and measure the structural response and pavement performance under a controlled, accelerated damage accumulation in a compressed period of time. However, different types of APT technologies can lead to different results. Full-size loading devices simulate road traffic accurately, but are expensive, while down-scaled size simulators are cost effective, nevertheless further away from reality. In this work, two types of APT mobile load simulators with different loading characteristics are compared with respect to pavement response in the field and in the laboratory. The MLS10 is a full-size simulator, whereas the MMLS3 is a one-third scale device. The relationship between the devices was studied in terms of the measured strains induced by both machines in the same pavement. Therefore, a testing field was instrumented with strain gauges and first trafficked with MLS10. Later, a slab of the instrumented pavement was cut off the road and tested in the laboratory with the smaller MMLS3. Furthermore, the structure of the pavement was modelled with a viscoelastic finite element method model and the moving loads of both machines were simulated considering size, speed and approximate footprints of their tires. As for the pavement materials, the properties of the different asphalt layers were determined in the laboratory. Experimentally acquired strain data were used to validate the models. Stress fields under different loading and environmental conditions were analysed and compared. The evaluation shows that the models can predict the pavement response under different loading conditions. However, they still need to be improved to increase the accuracy under different conditions. Further, the analysis of the strains show that both load simulators induce a different stress–strain situation and scaling of the pavement should be considered.     

Analysis of inverted base pavements with thin-asphalt layers

Inverted base pavements are flexible pavement structures built by placing a top quality compacted granular aggregate base between a rigid cement-treated base and a thin-asphalt surface layer. The proximity of the granular base to the load makes its behaviour critical to the pavement response. Three-dimensional finite-element simulations are conducted to assess the mechanical performance of different inverted base pavement structures, with emphasis placed on pavements that feature thin-asphalt surface layers. A nonlinear constitutive model captures the anisotropic stress-dependent stiffness of the granular base. Results show that the stress distribution within inverted base pavements is markedly different from that of conventional pavements due to the stiffness contrast between successive layers. Thin-asphalt layers deform more uniformly and experience lower tension than thick layers. However, in the presence of combined shear and vertical contact loads, the benefits of a membrane response in thin asphalt concrete layers may be overwhelmed by the increased tensile strain at the load edge. The transition from beam to membrane asphalt response depends on the relative stiffness between the asphalt layer and the aggregate base. In most cases, the transition takes place at an asphalt layer thickness between 25 mm and 50 mm.     

基于非线性模型的沥青路面动力响应研究

根据路基变形的非线性及沥青路面具有明显粘弹性的特点,将沥青路面简化为非线性粘弹性地基上的粘弹性无限长梁,建立了移动载荷作用下非线性粘弹性梁系统动力响应数学模型。利用Adomian分解法和小波变换法得到求解稳态响应解析解的新方法。通过实际道路参数对沥青路面动力响应进行了数值仿真,研究了车速、车辆轴载、路面材料及温度对沥青路面动力响应的影响规律。结果表明该文提出的计算方法简便、快捷,是求解该类非线性动力响应问题的一种有效方法;非线性模型更能准确地反映重载及超载时沥青路面实际结构受力状态。     

Comparison of response for three different composite pavement sections to environmental loads

Composite pavement structures are constructed mainly either as Portland cement concrete (PCC)-over-PCC or hot mix asphalt (HMA)-over-PCC. Several successful in-service projects have been reported in Europe. The design and construction of these sections in the United States, however, still require effort. The current study includes the analysis of the response of three different composite pavement sections to the environmental loads. These sections were constructed in May of 2010 at the Minnesota Road Research Facility. The sections are constructed in three individual cells, Cell 70, a HMA-over-PCC with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), Cell 71, exposed aggregate concrete (EAC)-over-RCA and Cell 72, EAC-over-economical concrete. All cells were heavily instrumented with thermocouples, moisture sensors, and static and dynamic strain gauges. This study characterises the structural response of HMA-over-PCC pavements and also PCC-over-PCC to the environmental loads.     

Dynamic Response Solution of Multi-Layered Pavement Structure Under FWD Load Appling the Precise Integration Algorithm

The pavement layered structures are composed of surface layer, road base and multi-layered soil foundation. They can be undermined over time by repeated vehicle loads. In this study, a hybrid numerical method which can evaluate the displacement responses of pavement structures under dynamic falling weight deflectometer (FWD) loads. The proposed method consists of two parts: (a) the dynamic stiffness matrices of the points at the surface in the frequency domain which is based on the domain-transformation and dual vector form equation, and (b) interpolates the dynamic stiffness matrices by a continues rational function of frequency. The mixed variables formulation (MVF) can treat multiple degree of freedom systems with considering the coupling term between degree of freedoms. The accuracy of the developed method has been demonstrated by comparison between the proposed method and published results from the other method. Then the proposed method can be applied as a forward calculation technique to emulate the falling weight deflectometer test for multi-layered pavement structures.     

沥青结合料老化对路面功能层力学性能的影响

为考察沥青结合料老化对路面功能层力学性能的影响,运用Bisar和Ansys程序计算了不同老化程度的沥青路面的应力应变分布情况.通过计算分析可知:沥青层中产生的最大拉应力位于路表面双轮中心处;路面老化后,沥青层中产生的最大拉应力增加,最大拉应变与未老化路面相比,基本处于同一水平;在老化的前期(老化程度较轻时),沥青路面层内产生的最大剪应力远大于沥青路面层产生的最大拉应力;随着路面老化程度的加深,路面表面双轮中心处的拉应力(沥青层内产生的最大拉应力)接近甚至大于沥青面层的最大剪应力;这表明,路面在使用前期容易发生剪切破坏,随着路面老化程度的加深,路面更容易产生拉伸破坏.     

A mechanistic approach to evaluate the potential of the debonding distress in asphalt pavements

The debonding distress in asphalt pavement structures is a critical problem that affects the performance of asphalt concrete pavements. It occurs at the layer interface due to the poor bond quality between adjacent asphalt concrete layers and/or when stresses at the layer interface exceed the strengths of the material at the interface. The debonding of the adjacent layers, especially the top surface layer of an asphalt pavement, is a contributing factor to the premature cracking of pavements. Hence, the debonding distress can lead to a reduction in the life of the pavement. This paper presents an analytical and experimental framework to evaluate the potential for debonding at the layer interface of asphalt concrete pavements. Computational analysis was performed to determine the critical stress and strain states in layered asphalt pavements under moving vehicle loads using the Layered ViscoElastic pavement analysis for Critical Distresses (LVECD) computer program developed at North Carolina State University. This computational analysis enables a greater understanding of the critical stress that is involved in debonding and the ways that such stress is affected by pavement design parameters and environmental conditions. In addition, a prediction model was developed that can determine the shear bond strength at the interface of asphalt concrete layers with different tack coat materials at various temperatures, loading rates and normal confining stresses. The systematic and mechanistic framework developed in this study employs the maximum shear ratio concept as a shear failure criterion and provides a tool to evaluate the effects of various loading, environmental and pavement factors on the debonding potential of asphalt pavements. The overall advantages of the mechanistic framework and approach using the LVECD analysis tool will help lead to better understanding of the debonding mechanism, proper selection of the tack coats, and economic benefit in highway pavement maintenance and rehabilitation costs.     

Effects of potassium titanate whiskers and carbon fibers on the wear behavior of polyetheretherketone composite under water lubricated condition

The tribological behaviors of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) composite reinforced by carbon fiber (CF) and potassium titanate whiskers (PTW) have been investigated using the pin-on-disk configuration at different applied loads under water lubricated condition. The effects of micrometer carbon fiber and sub-micrometer PTW on the wear properties of the hybrid composite have been discussed. It was found that the PEEK/PTW/CF composite showed excellent tribological performance in water condition. High wear resistance and low friction coefficient were achieved under a wide range of loads. It was revealed that the two fillers worked synergetically to enhance the wear resistance of the hybrid reinforced PEEK composite. The carbon fiber carried the main load between the contact surfaces and protected the matrix from further severe abrasion of the counterpart. At the same time, the exposed PTW out of the polymer matrix around the fiber inhibited the direct scraping between the fiber edge and counterpart tip in some degree, so that the fibers could be less directly impacted during the subsequent sliding process and they were protected from severe damage. In addition, the reinforcement effect of PTW on PEEK could reduce the stress concentration on the carbon fiber-matrix interface, and thereby reduce the CF failure/damage. The reinforcement effect of PTW on PEEK might also restrict the crack initiation and propagation on the surface and subsurface of the composite, and therefore to protect the matrix from fatigue failure during the sliding process.     

Wheel tracking rutting performance estimation based on bitumen Low Shear Viscosity (LSV), loading and temperature conditions

The development of new technologies and road pavement materials require the evaluation of the asphalt mixture performance. Rutting is one of the main modes of failure of asphalt mixtures; it is typically studied at the laboratory through the wheel tracking test (WTT). Weather and traffic conditions (temperature, loads) significantly affect the pavement rutting performance. The bitumen rheological properties also have a main role in mixture rutting response; they can adequately characterized by the bitumen Low Shear Viscosity (LSV). The estimation of rutting performance appears as a useful decision tool to optimize pavement design process. This paper studies the rutting performance of asphalts mixtures utilising the WTT. The specimens were tested at different temperatures and loading levels to simulate different climatic and traffic pavement conditions. A performance estimator was developed including temperature and traffic load on the pavement, and LSV of the binder as input data.     

Modelling of 3D response pulse at the bottom of asphalt layer using a novel function and artificial neural network

Fatigue life of asphalt mixes in laboratory tests is commonly determined by applying a haversine or sinusoidal load with a specific frequency. However, the frequency (time duration) and shape of horizontal tensile stress and strain pulses at the bottom the asphalt layer depend on pavement design (thickness and stiffness of layers) and loading specifications (speed and contact radius). The first objective of this paper is to introduce a novel function for a more realistic representation of 3D response (stress and strain pulses in longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions) at the bottom of the asphalt layer. The second objective is to establish a framework for determination of magnitude and shape of 3D response pulse at the bottom of the asphalt layer using artificial neural network. This framework enables designers to predict the shape and magnitude of stress and strain pulses in three directions based on some parameters related to pavement structure and loading specifications.     

Mechanical behaviour of surface layer fibreglass-reinforced flexible pavements

The work presented in this paper aims at providing a better understanding of the mechanical response of surface layer fibreglass-reinforced flexible pavements. The surface reinforcement technique consists of installing a fibreglass grid in between the levelling layer (placed on the base course to seal and level the pre-existing distresses) and the wearing course (or overlay). Flexural fracture tests were performed on two-layered reinforced asphalt specimens composed of both levelling and wearing courses to simulate a real overlay structure. Three fibreglass grids characterised by different mechanical and/or geometrical properties were employed. Strain localisation and damage distribution were investigated using an in-house digital image correlation system capable of achieving highly accurate 2D full-field strain maps of the specimens during loading. Finally, an analytical model was developed on purpose to reproduce the mechanical response of the asphalt mixture-interlayer system.     

Investigation into engineering properties and strength mechanism of grouted macadam composite materials

To further understand engineering properties of grouted macadam composite materials (GMCM) used as a surfacing layer in pavement, the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of GMCM were evaluated, and the relevant strength mechanisms were investigated at the micro level. Results indicate that GMCM has better high-temperature stability, fatigue performance and moisture stability than that of conventional asphalt mix, while it shows an acceptable decrease in low-temperature crack resistance due to the relative brittleness of hardened cement paste. The hardened cement paste also generates a spatial network crystalline lattice in asphalt mix skeleton to form a three-dimensional integral coagulation-crystalloid structure. This facilitates the asphalt mix skeleton and hardened cement paste to bear loads in unison and increase durability of the GMCM. Further, the fibre-like hydrated products of fresh cement slurry on the bitumen film surface increase the interfacial strength between bitumen and hardened cement paste due to toughening and bridging effects, which plays an important role to enhance mechanical properties and durability of GMCM. Finally, GMCM strength is from the internal friction of asphalt mix skeleton, the network structure of hardened cement paste and the adhesion between porous asphalt mix and hardened cement paste. It is concluded that GMCM can better meet the requirements of mechanical properties and durability characteristics than the conventional asphalt mix.     

Dynamic response of top-down cracked asphalt concrete pavement under a half-sinusoidal impact load

A 3D finite element analysis model of cracked asphalt pavement is established by the FEM software ABAQUS. Based on dynamics mechanics, fracture mechanics and finite element theory, this paper studies the influence of various vehicle speeds, crack location, crack depth, damping ratio etc. on the dynamic response. The results show that the surface deflection, the maximum tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer, and the maximum shear stress of the asphalt layer decreased with the increase in vehicle velocity when there is no crack in the pavement. No matter where the transverse position of the crack is the stress intensity factors increase with the increase in crack depth and decrease exponentially with the increase in longitudinal distance between the vehicle center and the crack. In the case of the crack locating in the center of wheel clearance, the surface deflection increases with the crack depth increasing. But if the crack is at the edge of the wheel track, there will be a critical vehicle velocity where the surface deflection is smaller than the asphalt pavement without crack if the vehicle velocity is above it. The maximum tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer and the maximum shear stress of the asphalt layer are also smaller than the asphalt pavement without crack. The maximum tensile strain and the maximum shear stress decrease with the damping ratio increasing. So the increase in damping ratio can help to alleviate the propagation of cracks.