Processing of steel for ultrafine ferrite grain structures

Abstract

The attainment of ultrafine ferrite grain structures in low carbon, low alloy steels is of interest because of the improvement in yield strength and Charpy impact transition temperature predicted by extrapolation of known data to very fine grain sizes. This paper presents a summary of research aimed at producing ultrafine ferrite in a niobium microalloyed, low carbon steel by three processing routes. Transformational grain refinement (TGR), in which extrafine austenite is hot rolled and cooled rapidly, has been shown to be capable of producing grain sizes of <1 µm in a surface layer, and 1.5 µm in the centre of 3 mm thick plate. Dynamic recrystallisation of ferrite during multipass warm rolling was shown to be neither complete nor uniform within the cross-section of the plate. Nevertheless, a partly recrystallised, partly recovered grain structure with an average grain size of 1.5 µm was obtained in the centre of 3 mm thick plate. Cold rolling and recrystallisation of ferrite that had been previously refined by TGR to an intermediate grain size was shown to produce an ultrafine grain microstructure (<1 µm grain size) throughout the section of 1 mm thick strip. The hardness of ultrafine ferrite was shown to obey a linear relationship with the inverse square root of grain size, but with a lower slope than expected from the Petch relationship for yield strength.     

Mathematical modelling of hot rolling steel strip

Abstract

Thermal and microstructural evolution during hot rolling of low carbon steel in a continuous six stand mill is simulated with a two-dimensional explicit finite difference model in which the cross-sectional area of the strip is divided into small elements of equal volume. The heat transfer coefficients at the surface of the strip are allowed to change as it is assumed that the strip is in air or is being descaled or deformed. Results of the microstructural modelling indicate that austenite is able to undergo dynamic recrystallisation when the conditions within the roll gap are propitious. This model also allows for the occurrence of metadynamic and static recrystallisation once the material leaves the gap and for grain growth after their completion. From this, it is concluded that the most important controlling mechanism is grain growth. The thermal portion of the model was validated with measurements made on a six stand continuous mill. It was not possible to obtain a direct validation of the microstructural algorithms, but they are considered to be correct, since it was possible to achieve a good correlation between the separation forces predicted by the model and those recorded experimentally during actual production once the kinetics of the different mechanisms were incorporated into the model.     

Formation of ultrafine grained ferrite during thermomechanical treatment in microalloyed steel

Abstract

In the present work, the formation of ultrafine grained ferrite has been studied by applying suitable thermomechanical treatment. A high amount of deformation (～80%) at varying strain rates (0·01–10 s^?1) was applied in the temperature range of Ar₃ to Ac₃ followed by water quenching. This treatment resulted in a two-phase ferrite–martensite microstructure as compared to fully martensite structure after quenching without deformation. The formation of ultrafine ferrite (?3 μm) during deformation was favourable at a lower temperature and a slower strain rate. A maximum ～50% ferrite formed during deformation at 780°C with a strain rate of 0·01 s^?1. Experimental rolling with a high strain (～1·3) with finish rolling temperature just above Ar₃ (～750°C) resulted in fine ferrite–pearlite of ?3 μm, and the properties showed a high value of strength as compared to steels rolled in a conventional way. Dual phase microstructure (ferrite and martensite) was produced after partial austenisation to 780°C followed by quenching in water, and this resulted in an excellent combination of properties (high ultimate tensile strength, low yield strength/ultimate tensile strength, high elongation and high n values).     

Analysis of ferrite formed in 321 grade austenitic stainless steel

A significant fraction of ferrite has been identified in a 321 grade austenitic stainless steel in the solution heat treated condition. The microstructures were analysed using electron backscatter diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the stability of the ferrite investigated using heat treatments in a tube furnace, dilatometry and high temperature XRD. The ferrite dissolved ～800°C, then formed again on cooling at temperatures under 200°C. Thermodynamic predictions showed a significant ferrite content at room temperature under equilibrium conditions, and the DeLong diagrams predict an austenite+martensite microstructure in the cast condition. Sensitivity analysis on the DeLong diagram has shown that the nitrogen content had a large effect on the austenite stability. The instability of the austenite and the subsequent transformation to ferrite on cooling can be attributed to low nitrogen content measured in the as received material. It was found that thermal aging of the material caused further transformation of austenite to ferrite as well as the formation of sigma phase that appears higher in nitrogen than the matrix phases. The diffusion of nitrogen into sigma phase may cause instability of the austenite, which could cause further transformation of austenite to ferrite on cooling from the aging temperature. The transformation of austenite to ferrite is known to be accompanied by an increase in volume, which may be of relevance to components made with tight dimensional tolerances.     

Three-dimensional morphology of ferrite formed in association with inclusions in low-carbon steel

Three-dimensional (3D) morphology and growth behavior of ferrite formed at intragranular inclusions in low-carbon steel were studied by serial sectioning and computer-aided visualization. The specimens taken from the weld deposit were austenitized and isothermally reacted for varying times. The length, width, and thickness of ferrite plates were measured from 3D-reconstructed images. From the length-to-width ratio, the morphology of ferrite is likely to be a lath rather than a plate in this alloy. Multivariant ferrite plates (or laths) were observed to be nucleated at inclusions and grow in the directions close to 〈110〉_γ with habit planes near {111}_γ, probably keeping a fixed orientation relationship with austenite.     

强磁场下冷却速率对Fe-0.76%C钢先共析铁素体组织的影响

研究了在12T强磁场下冷却速率对Fe-0.76%C钢中先共析铁素体的显微组织和性能的影响,结果表明:先共析铁索体晶粒的伸长方向与磁场方向的夹角随着冷速度的提高而增大,其原因是高速冷却时原子扩散减弱.在冷却速率相同的条件下,与非磁场热处理样品相比,强磁场热处理样品的先共析铁素体面积明显增加,宏观硬度下降,因为强磁场使Fe-0.76%C钢表现出更明显的亚共析钢特征.     

Effect of strain on formation of ultrafine ferrite in surface of hot rolled microalloyed steel

Abstract

The phenomenon of ultra grain refinement of ferrite in surface layers of hot rolled strip has been studied in a low carbon, niobium microalloyed steel. Wedge specimens were used, to vary the nominal equivalent strain applied during rolling from zero to approximately unity, and the cooling rate after rolling was varied from ~ 20 to 1 K s ^-1. In contrast with previous work, which contended that a very coarse austenite grain size and a low rolling temperature near the Ar ₃ were essential to obtain ultrafine ferrite in surface layers, such ultrafine layers were observed after rolling coarse austenite at up to 150 K above the Ar ₃ and after rolling fine grained austenite near the Ar ₃. In the case of coarse grained austenite, a critical nominal rolling strain needed to be exceeded to trigger the surface layer phenomenon, upon which cooling rate had little effect on the surface layer's grain size. Refining the prior austenite grain size had the further beneficial effect of refining the grain size at the centre of the rolled product, for example to 2·6 μm, while the surface layer was refined to 0·7 μm.     

低碳钢超细晶铁素体的形成

将含碳量（质量分数）为0．057％和0．18％的低碳钢在不同过冷度、变形温度、变形速率和变形量的条件下进行热模拟实验,研究了含碳量和热变形条件对超细晶粒形成的影响．结果表明,变形前快速冷却（20℃／s）至Ar3以上附近温度并进行超过50％变形量的变形,能强烈促进过冷奥氏体形变诱发铁素体相变,铁素体在奥氏体晶内平行的变形带上形核,并发生动态回复和再结晶,从而使组织细化．形变诱发的相变过程由碳的扩散所控制,当钢的含碳量比较高时,小过冷度、大变形量和中等变形速率有利于铁素体相变,晶界碳化物的析出能够抑制铁素体晶粒的长大,因而高碳含量钢表现出更好的细化晶粒效果．     

Microstructure and microtexture in pure copper processed by high-pressure torsion

The evolution of microstructure and microtexture in high purity copper was examined after processing by high-pressure torsion (HPT). Copper disks were annealed for 1 h at 800 °C and later processed monotonously in HPT at ambient temperature for 1/4, 1/2, 1, and 5 turns under a pressure of 6.0 GPa. Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) measurements were taken for each disk at three positions: center, mid-radius, and near-edge. Results from EBSD for samples processed between 1/4 and 1 turn indicate the formation of Σ3 twin boundaries by recrystallization before complete microstructural refinement. The results show a gradual increase in the homogeneity of the microstructure with increasing numbers of turns, reaching a stabilized ultrafine-grained structure at 5 turns with a bimodal distribution of fine and coarse grains of 0.15 and 0.5 μm in diameter, respectively. The occurrence of recrystallization in the early straining stages was further supported by examining microtexture development with increasing numbers of turns, where this shows a gradual transition from a shear texture to a mixture of shear and recrystallization and later to a shear texture at high HPT strains. The promotion of recrystallization during HPT is probably related to the high purity of the copper.     

Microstructure and microtexture evolution in pure metals after ultra-high straining

Ultrafine-grained, and even nanostructured materials can be manufactured by ultra-high straining by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP), high-pressure torsion (HPT), by machining, and through combinations, such as machining of ECAP specimens, HPT plus ECAP, and HPT of machining chips. This report describes the results of investigations of the microstructure and microtexture of pure aluminium and copper subjected to different deformation processes to high imposed strains. The microstructures, dislocation densities, and microhardness developed during combinations of different strain paths were investigated and all characteristics were analyzed by X-ray, transmission and scanning electron microscopy, and by orientation imaging microscopy. The influence of different processing routes is examined in terms of the accumulated strain and microstructure refinement. A saturation in grain refinement is also considered with reference to the occurrence of recovery during ultra-high strain deformation.     

Effect of rolling and epitaxial ferrite on the tensile properties of low alloy steel

A low alloy steel containing 0.09% C was thermomechanically processed at the intercritical annealing temperature of 790 °C to produce dual-phase microstructure from 50% of austenite. After applying different rolling reductions at this temperature, the specimens were quenched in boiling water to promote the growth of epitaxial ferrite. Warm rolling at 790 °C decreased the hardenability of austenite due to increased in interfacial area of austenite and ferrite. Tensile strength was improved by increasing the rolling reductions both in longitudinal and transverse directions without any significant loss in ductility attributed to the presence of epitaxial ferrite. Microvoid formation in the necked region and their percentage area fraction was measured. The correlation between the area fractions of microvoids formation with strain in the necked region ultimately defined the mode of failure.     

Microstructure evolution during thermomechanical processing in 3Mn-0.1C medium-Mn steel

ABSTRACT

Medium-Mn steels are energetically investigated as a candidate of the third generation advanced high strength steels (AHSSs). However, their phase transformation and microstructaure evolution during various heat treatments and thermomechanical processing are still unclear. The present study first confirmed the kinetics of static phase transformation behaviour in a 3Mn-0.1C medium-Mn steel. Hot compression tests were also carried out to investigate the influence of high-temperature deformation of austenite on subsequent microstructure evolution. It was found that static ferrite transformation was quite slow in this steel, but ferrite transformation was greatly accelerated by the hot deformation in austenite and ferrite two-phase regions. Characteristic dual-phase microstructures composed of martensite and fine-grained ferrite were obtained, which exhibited superior mechanical properties.

This paper is part of a Thematic Issue on Medium Manganese Steels.     

Experimental investigation on thermal wear of high speed steel rolls in hot strip rolling

Abstract

The thermal wear ratio of a high speed steel roll was investigated experimentally in hot strip rolling with a DTW- 166 thermal wear testing machine developed by the authors. It is clear that the wear ratio increased with number of cycles. Some of the increase in wear was because of the black oxide layer generated on the roll surface at the beginning. The wear ratio also increased as slippage ratio and loads increased. Loads played a more important role than slippage ratio for thermal wear. The appearance of the roll surface was observed by SEM under different conditions. The mechanism of thermal wear was composed of adhesive, microploughing, microcutting, oxidation, and plastic slippage wear.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of spray-deposited ultra-high carbon steel after hot rolling

The tensile mechanical properties of as-cast ingot metal (IM), spray-formed (SF), and as-hot-rolled (HR) ultra-high carbon steels (UHCS) containing silicon were investigated in this paper. The relationship between microstructure and tensile properties was described for these steels. The carbide networks, the pearlitic interlamellar spacing, the size of carbide particles, and the volume ratio between lamellar and spheroidized structure are all microstructure factors influencing the tensile properties in UHCS.     

超细晶1.73C超高碳钢的组织和性能

将1．73C％超高碳钢（UHCS-1．73C）的钢锭经过低应变、多道次锻造,加热淬火、高温回火后得到超细晶粒、球状碳化物组织,再进行循环感应热处理,得到超细晶粒马氏体基体上分布超细球状碳化物的组织,研究其组织和性能与循环感应热处理之间的关系．结果表明,随着感应加热淬火循环次数增加,组织中出现板条马氏体且数量增加,马氏体片变短、钝化,碳化物颗粒更圆整,压缩屈服强度升高,塑性增大．循环感应淬火4次后（不回火）屈服强度1105MPa,断裂强度1992MPa,压缩率9．8％．     

Microstructure and performance optimisation of stainless steel formed by laser additive manufacturing

In the present study, laser engineered net shaping technology was successfully utilised to fabricate 316L stainless steel bulk specimens using unidirectional scanning path and weaving scanning path. Influence of scanning path and post-heat treatment on microstructural and mechanical properties of the as-deposited builds has been investigated. The results show that scanning paths have a significant impact on the grain morphology evolution. Consequently, the as-made samples by different scanning strategies show a great difference in the mechanical properties. Furthermore, the experimental results also demonstrate that post-heat treatment is an essential step in further optimising microstructure and improving mechanical properties.     

Microstructure and microtexture changes during solution nitriding to produce austenitic case on ferritic–austenitic duplex stainless steel

Abstract

The present paper reports an investigation into the microstructural changes occurring in a ferritic–austenitic duplex stainless steel during solution nitriding. Both microstructure and microtexture modifications as a result of nitrogenation have been studied, in addition to the interaction between solution nitriding, grain growth, and texture. Three microstructural zones were identified: a duplex ferrite–austenite region overlayed by a transition zone overlayed again at the surface by an austenitic zone. The solution nitriding led to nitrogen enrichment at the specimen surface, which in turn enlarged the austenitic field in this region. The ferrite dissolution here triggered secondary recrystallisation, accompanied by a texture change. Hence, the texture of the austenite in this region was different from that in the duplex region.     

Mechanical properties of ultrafine grained ferritic steel sheets fabricated by rolling and annealing of duplex microstructure

A new route to fabricate ultrafine grained (UFG) ferritic steel sheets without severe plastic deformation is proposed in this article. A low-carbon steel sheet with a duplex microstructure composed of ferrite and martensite was cold-rolled to a reduction of 91% in thickness, and then annealed at 620–700 °C. The microstructure obtained through the process with annealing temperatures below 700 °C was the UFG ferrite including fine cementite particles homogenously dispersed. The grain size of ferrite matrix changed from 0.49 to 1.0 μm depending on the annealing temperature. Dynamic tensile properties of the produced UFG steels were investigated. The obtained UFG ferrite–cementite steels without martensite phase showed high strain rate sensitivity in flow stress. The UFG ferritic steels are expected to have high potential to absorb crash energy when applied to automobile body.