Prosopis farcta Seeds: Potential Source of Protein and Unsaturated Fatty Acids?

The goal of this study is to evaluate the chemical composition of the Prosopis farcta seeds. The Kjeldahl method revealed that the level of the total protein was ca. 18 % on a dry weight basis (DW). Gas chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of six fatty acids. Linoleic acid with 57.55 % was the major fatty acid, followed by oleic and palmitic acids (24.58 and 12.91 %, respectively). Total phenolic content was 1.71 mg GAE/g DW (GAE = gallic acid equivalents). Methanolic extracts showed important antioxidant properties. This work highlights the importance of P. farcta seeds as natural and inexpensive sources of protein, unsaturated fatty acid, and phenolic compounds for both cosmetic and pharmaceutical uses.     

ω-3 Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Diseases: Effects,Mechanisms and Dietary Relevance

ω-3 fatty acids (n-3 FA) have, since the 1970s, been associated with beneficial health effects. They are, however, prone to lipid peroxidation due to their many double bonds. Lipid peroxidation is a process that may lead to increased oxidative stress, a condition associated with adverse health effects. Recently, conflicting evidence regarding the health benefits of intake of n-3 from seafood or n-3 supplements has emerged. The aim of this review was thus to examine recent literature regarding health aspects of n-3 FA intake from fish or n-3 supplements, and to discuss possible reasons for the conflicting findings. There is a broad consensus that fish and seafood are the optimal sources of n-3 FA and consumption of approximately 2–3 servings per week is recommended. The scientific evidence of benefits from n-3 supplementation has diminished over time, probably due to a general increase in seafood consumption and better pharmacological intervention and acute treatment of patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVD).     

Distinction of Microglia and Macrophages in Glioblastoma: Close Relatives,Different Tasks?

For decades, it has been known that the tumor microenvironment is significant for glioma progression, namely the infiltration of myeloid cells like microglia and macrophages. Hence, these cell types and their specific tasks in tumor progression are subject to ongoing research. However, the distribution of the brain resident microglia and the peripheral macrophages within the tumor tissue and their functional activity are highly debated. Results depend on the method used to discriminate between microglia and macrophages, whereby this specification is already difficult due to limited options to distinguish between these both cell populations that show mostly the same surface markers and morphology. Moreover, there are indications about various functions of microglia and macrophages but again varying on the method of discrimination. In our review, we summarize the current literature to determine which methods have been applied to differentiate the brain resident microglia from tumor-infiltrated macrophages. Furthermore, we compiled data about the proportion of microglia and macrophages in glioma tissues and ascertained if pro- or anti-tumoral effects could be allocated to one or the other myeloid cell population. Recent research made tremendous efforts to distinguish microglia from recruited macrophages. For future studies, it could be essential to verify which role these cells play in brain tumor pathology to proceed with novel immunotherapeutic strategies.     

Netrin-1 in Glioblastoma Neovascularization: The New Partner in Crime?

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and common primary tumor of the central nervous system. It is characterized by having an infiltrating growth and by the presence of an excessive and aberrant vasculature. Some of the mechanisms that promote this neovascularization are angiogenesis and the transdifferentiation of tumor cells into endothelial cells or pericytes. In all these processes, the release of extracellular microvesicles by tumor cells plays an important role. Tumor cell-derived extracellular microvesicles contain pro-angiogenic molecules such as VEGF, which promote the formation of blood vessels and the recruitment of pericytes that reinforce these structures. The present study summarizes and discusses recent data from different investigations suggesting that Netrin-1, a highly versatile protein recently postulated as a non-canonical angiogenic ligand, could participate in the promotion of neovascularization processes in GBM. The relevance of determining the angiogenic signaling pathways associated with the interaction of Netrin-1 with its receptors is posed. Furthermore, we speculate that this molecule could form part of the microvesicles that favor abnormal tumor vasculature. Based on the studies presented, this review proposes Netrin-1 as a novel biomarker for GBM progression and vascularization.     

NMR,GC–MS and ESI-FTICR-MS Profiling of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols in Some Botswana Seed Oils

In the search for non-traditional seed oils, physicochemical parameters, fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol (TAG) profiles for five Botswana seed oils, obtained by Soxhlet extraction, were determined. GC–MS and ¹H-NMR analyses showed the FA profiles for mkukubuyo, Sterculia africana, and manketti, Ricinodendron rautanenii, seed oils dominated by linoleic and oleic acids, 26.1, 16.7 and 51.9, 24.4%, respectively, with S. africana containing significant amounts of cyclic FAs (19.9%). Mokolwane, Hyphaene petersiana, seed oil was typically lauric; 12:0 and 14:0 acids were 25.9 and 13.4%, respectively. Morama, Tylosema esculentum, seed oil resembled olive oil; 18:1 (47.3%) and 18:2 (23.4%) acids dominated. Moretologa-kgomo, Ximenia caffra, seed oil had 45.8% of 18:1 FA, plus significant amounts of very long chain FAs: 26:1 (5.8%), 28:1 (13.9%), 30:1 (3.9%), and acetylenic acids, 9a-18:1 (1.5%) and 9a, 11t-18:2 (16.0%). TAG classes and regiochemistry were determined with ESI-FTICR-MS, and ¹³C-NMR spectra, respectively. Morama showed seven major TAG classes with C54:4 and C54:3 dominating; mokolwane had 16 major classes with C32:0, C38:0 and C42:2 dominating; manketti had 11 major classes with C54:7, C54:6 and C54:4 dominating; mkukubuyo had 12 major classes with C52:4, C52:3 and C54:4 dominating; moretologa-kgomo had 30 major TAG classes with C64:5, C64:3 and C62:3 dominating. Saturated FAs were generally distributed over the sn-1(3) position for morama, manketti, and moretologa-kgomo but at the sn-2 position for mokolwane and mkukubuyo. These findings indicate that morama and manketti seed oils can be developed for food uses, whilst moretologa-kgomo and mkukubuyo seed oils only for nonfood uses.     

Heterogeneous Catalytic Esterification of ω-Sulfhydryl Fatty Acids: Avoidance of Thioethers,Thioesters, and Disulfides

Two mesoporous silicas functionalized with propylsulfonic (SBA-15-PSA) and arenesulfonic (SBA-15-ASA) acid groups, and a highly acidic, functionalized styrene divinylbenzene copolymer ion exchange resin (Amberlyst-15) were examined for their ability to catalyze the ethanolic esterification of the ω-sulfhydryl fatty acid, 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA), without catalyzing unwanted side reactions at the sulfhydryl group. All three solid acid catalysts catalyzed the MUA esterification in excess ethanol. The activation energy for the catalytic esterifications were determined from 50 to 75 °C, resulting in apparent E _a of 54, 71, and 59 kJ/mol for SBA-15-PSA, SBA-15-ASA, and Amberlyst-15, respectively. GC–MS analysis determined that all three catalysts produced near quantitative conversion of MUA to its ethyl ester with very little reactivity towards the sulfhydryl group. This was a marked improvement over the esterifications catalyzed by sulfuric and p-toluenesulfonic acids which produced thioethers and disulfide side products. The MUA ethyl ester synthesis was demonstrated on a gram scale at 70 °C catalyzed by Amberlyst-15, and the desired product was isolated in 80% yield at >95% purity with a minimum of purification.     

Analysis of Fatty Acids in 12 Mediterranean Fish Species: Advantages and Limitations of a New GC-FID/GC–MS Based Technique

When fatty acids in fish are analyzed, results in percentage form (profile analysis) are mostly reported. However, the much more useful results expressed as mg/100 g (absolute analysis) is the main information required. Absolute methods based on calibration curves are of good accuracy but with a high degree of complexity if applied to a great number of analytes. Procedures based on the sequence profile analysis–total FA determination–absolute analysis may be suitable for routine use, but suffer from a number of uncertainties that have never been really resolved. These uncertainties are mainly related to the profile analysis. In fact, most profile analyses reported in the literature disagree about the number and type of fatty acids monitored as well as about the total percentage to assign to their sum so leading to possible inaccuracies; in addition the instrumental response factor for all FAME (fatty acid methyl esters) is often considered as a constant, but this is not exactly true. In this work, a set of 24 fatty acids was selected and studied on 12 fish species in the Mediterranean area (variable in lipid content and month of sampling): in our results, and in these species, this set constitutes, on average, 90 ± 3 % of the total fatty acid content. Moreover the error derived from the assumption of a unique response factor was investigated. Two different detection techniques (GC-FID and GC–MS) together with two capillary columns (different in length and polarity) were used in order to acquire complementary data on the same sample. With the protocol here proposed absolute analyses on the 12 cited species are easily achievable by the total FA determination procedure. The accuracy of this approach is good in general, but in some cases (DHA for example) is lower than the accuracy of calibration-based methods. The differences were evaluated on a case by case basis.     

Free Fatty Acids Increase Intracellular Lipid Accumulation and Oxidative Stress by Modulating PPARα and SREBP-1c in L-02 Cells

Excessive fat accumulation and increased oxidative stress contribute to the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the mechanisms underlying the development of steatosis are not entirely understood. The present study was undertaken to establish an experimental model of hepatocellular steatosis with a fat overaccumulation profile in which the effects of oxidative stress could be studied in L‐02 cells. We investigated the effects of free fatty acids (FFA) (palmitate:oleate, 1:2) on lipid accumulation and oxidative stress and their possible mechanisms in L‐02 cells. High concentrations of fatty acids significantly induced excessive lipid accumulation and oxidative stress in L‐02 cells, which could only be reversed with 50 μΜ WY14643 (the PPARα agonist). Immunoblotting and qPCR analyses revealed that FFA downregulated the expression of proliferator‐activated receptor alpha (PPARα), which contributed to the increased activation of sterol regulatory element binding protein‐1c (SREBP‐1c). These results suggest that FFA induce lipid accumulation and oxidative stress in L‐02 cells by upregulating SREBP‐1c expression through the suppression of PPARα.     

Fatty Acid-Specific Alterations in Leptin,PPARα, and CPT-1 Gene Expression in the Rainbow Trout

It is known that fatty acids (FA) regulate lipid metabolism by modulating the expression of numerous genes. In order to gain a better understanding of the effect of individual FA on lipid metabolism related genes in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), an in vitro time‐course study was implemented where twelve individual FA (butyric 4:0; caprylic 8:0; palmitic (PAM) 16:0; stearic (STA) 18:0; palmitoleic16:1n‐7; oleic 18:1n‐9; 11‐cis‐eicosenoic 20:1n‐9; linoleic (LNA) 18:2n‐6; α‐linolenic (ALA) 18:3n‐3; eicosapentenoic (EPA) 20:5n‐3; docosahexaenoic (DHA) 22:6n‐3; arachidonic (ARA) 20:4n‐6) were incubated in rainbow trout liver slices. The effect of FA administration over time was evaluated on the expression of leptin, PPARα and CPT‐1 (lipid oxidative related genes). Leptin mRNA expression was down regulated by saturated fatty acids (SFA) and LNA, and was up regulated by monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and long chain PUFA, whilst STA and ALA had no effect. PPARα and CPT‐1mRNA expression were up regulated by SFA, MUFA, ALA, ARA and DHA; and down regulated by LNA and EPA. These results suggest that there are individual and specific FA induced modifications of leptin, PPARα and CPT‐1 gene expression in rainbow trout, and it is envisaged that such results may provide highly valuable information for future practical applications in fish nutrition.     

Leptin in Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis: Player or Bystander?

White adipose tissue (WAT) is a specialized tissue whose main function is lipid synthesis and triglyceride storage. It is now considered as an active organ secreting a plethora of hormones and cytokines namely adipokines. Discovered in 1994, leptin has emerged as a key molecule with pleiotropic functions. It is primarily recognized for its role in regulating energy homeostasis and food intake. Currently, further evidence suggests its potent role in reproduction, glucose metabolism, hematopoiesis, and interaction with the immune system. It is implicated in both innate and adaptive immunity, and it is reported to contribute, with other adipokines, in the cross-talking networks involved in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation and immune-related diseases of the musculo-skeletal system such as osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this review, we summarize the most recent findings concerning the involvement of leptin in immunity and inflammatory responses in OA and RA.     

sFlt-1 in Chronic Kidney Disease: Friend or Foe?

Placental growth factor (PlGF) and its receptor, fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (Flt-1), are important regulators involved in angiogenesis, atherogenesis, and inflammation. This review article focuses on the function of PlGF/Flt-1 signaling and its regulation by soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1) in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Elevation of circulating sFlt-1 and downregulation of sFlt-1 in the vascular endothelium by uremic toxins and oxidative stress both exacerbate heart failure and atherosclerosis. Circulating sFlt-1 is inconsistent with sFlt-1 synthesis, because levels of matrix-bound sFlt-1 are much higher than those of circulating sFlt-1, as verified by a heparin loading test, and are drastically reduced in CKD.     

α-Sulfo Fatty Methyl Ester Sulfonate: A Review on Chemistry,Processing Technologies,Performance, and Applications in Laundry Detergents

α-Sulfo fatty methyl ester sulfonate (α-MES) is one of the anionic surfactants that is currently used commercially in the cleaning industry. Although the fundamental studies on α-MES were initiated as far back as the 1950s, it was only recognized as a class of surfactant in the 1980s. In the initial stage of development, α-MES has been associated with many technical impediments, which created a fear factor for the detergent industry to consider this oleo-based anionic surfactant for commercial production. However, all the technical adversities have been resolved after five decades of continuous active research and development activities. This paper will review the history, chemistry, process development, processing technologies, performance, commercial production, and applications of oleo-based based α-MES with special emphasis on palm oil-based α-MES. The paper also will highlight the challenges and adversities faced by the technology developers and product formulators toward the commercialization of α-MES as an active ingredient in the production of powder and liquid laundry detergents.     

Neuroinflammation in Post-Ischemic Neurodegeneration of the Brain: Friend,Foe, or Both?

One of the leading causes of neurological mortality, disability, and dementia worldwide is cerebral ischemia. Among the many pathological phenomena, the immune system plays an important role in the development of post-ischemic degeneration of the brain, leading to the development of neuroinflammatory changes in the brain. After cerebral ischemia, the developing neuroinflammation causes additional damage to the brain cells, but on the other hand it also plays a beneficial role in repair activities. Inflammatory mediators are sources of signals that stimulate cells in the brain and promote penetration, e.g., T lymphocytes, monocytes, platelets, macrophages, leukocytes, and neutrophils from systemic circulation to the brain ischemic area, and this phenomenon contributes to further irreversible ischemic brain damage. In this review, we focus on the issues related to the neuroinflammation that occurs in the brain tissue after ischemia, with particular emphasis on ischemic stroke and its potential treatment strategies.     

A Striking Parallel Between Cardiolipin Fatty Acid Composition and Phylogenetic Belonging in Marine Bivalves: A Possible Adaptative Evolution?

Thirty-five species of marine mollusk bivalves were analyzed for their fatty acid (FA) composition of cardiolipin (Ptd(2)Gro). All species showed a Ptd(2)Gro with strong selectivity for only a few polyunsaturated fatty acids, but three characteristic FA profiles emerged, with clear parallels to bivalve phylogeny. A first group of 12 species belonging to the Eupteriomorphia subgroup (Filibranchia) was characterized by a Ptd(2)Gro almost exclusively composed of 22:6n-3, whereas in the four Filibranchia Pteriomorph species analyzed, this FA was combined with substantial proportions of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3. Finally, a third group of 20 species, all belonging to the Heterodonta subclass, possessed Ptd(2)Gro containing predominantly both 22:6n-3 and 20:5n-3. Polyunsaturated FA moieties and arrangements in the Ptd(2)Gro of some marine species investigated in other classes of the mollusk phylum (Gastropoda, Polyplacophora) were found to be different. The present results suggest that the specific Ptd(2)Gro FA compositions in bivalves are likely to be controlled and conserved in species of the same phylogenetic group. Functional significances of the evolution of this mitochondrial lipid structure in bivalves are discussed.     

βArrestins in Cardiac G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling and Function: Partners in Crime or “Good Cop,Bad Cop”?

βarrestin (βarr)-1 and -2 (βarrs) (or Arrestin-2 and -3, respectively) are universal G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) adapter proteins expressed abundantly in extra-retinal tissues, including the myocardium. Both were discovered in the lab of the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry co-laureate Robert Lefkowitz, initially as terminators of signaling from the β-adrenergic receptor (βAR), a process known as functional desensitization. They are now known to switch GPCR signaling from G protein-dependent to G protein-independent, which, in the case of βARs and angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT₁R), might be beneficial, e.g., anti-apoptotic, for the heart. However, the specific role(s) of each βarr isoform in cardiac GPCR signaling and function (or dysfunction in disease), remain unknown. The current consensus is that, whereas both βarr isoforms can desensitize and internalize cardiac GPCRs, they play quite different (even opposing in certain instances) roles in the G protein-independent signaling pathways they initiate in the cardiovascular system, including in the myocardium. The present review will discuss the current knowledge in the field of βarrs and their roles in GPCR signaling and function in the heart, focusing on the three most important, for cardiac physiology, GPCR types (β₁AR, β₂AR & AT₁R), and will also highlight important questions that currently remain unanswered.     

Dessert or Poison? The Roles of Glycosylation in Alzheimer's,Parkinson's,Huntington's Disease,and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Ministry of Education and Key Laboratory of Neurons and glial cells of the central nervous system (CNS) are modified by glycosylation and rely on glycosylation to achieve normal neural function. Neurodegenerative disease is a common disease of the elderly, affecting their healthy life span and quality of life, and no effective treatment is currently available. Recent research implies that various glycosylation traits are altered during neurodegenerative diseases, suggesting a potential implication of glycosylation in disease pathology. Herein, we summarized the current knowledge about glycosylation associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pathogenesis, focusing on their promising functional avenues. Moreover, we collected research aimed at highlighting the need for such studies to provide a wealth of disease-related glycosylation information that will help us better understand the pathophysiological mechanisms and hopefully specific glycosylation information to provide further diagnostic and therapeutic directions for neurodegenerative diseases.     

Daily Intake of Cod or Salmon for 2?Weeks Decreases the 18:1n-9/18:0 Ratio and Serum Triacylglycerols in Healthy Subjects

Intake of fish and omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids is associated with a reduced concentration of plasma triacylglycerols (TAG) but the mechanisms are not fully clarified. Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) activity, governing TAG synthesis, is affected by n-3 fatty acids. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) display expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism. The aim of the present study was to estimate whether intake of lean and fatty fish would influence n-3 fatty acids composition in plasma phospholipids (PL), serum TAG, 18:1n-9/18:0 ratio in plasma PL, as well as PBMC gene expression of SCD1 and fatty acid synthase (FAS). Healthy males and females (n = 30), aged 20–40, consumed either 150 g of cod, salmon, or potato (control) daily for 15 days. During intervention docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) increased in the cod group (P < 0.05), while TAG concentration decreased (P < 0.05). In the salmon group both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and DHA increased (P < 0.05) whereas TAG concentration and the 18:1n-9/18:0 ratio decreased (P < 0.05). Reduction of the 18:1n-9/18:0 ratio was associated with a corresponding lowering of TAG (P < 0.05) and an increase in EPA and DHA (P < 0.05). The mRNA levels of SCD1 and FAS in PBMC were not significantly altered after intake of cod or salmon when compared with the control group. In conclusion, both lean and fatty fish may lower TAG, possibly by reducing the 18:1n-9/18:0 ratio related to allosteric inhibition of SCD1 activity, rather than by influencing the synthesis of enzyme protein.