An Assessment and Estimation of the Damage Progression Behavior of IN738LC under Various Applied Stress Conditions Based on EBSD Analysis

In order to characterize the damage progression behavior of IN738LC and the influence of applied stress, the average misorientation within grains was evaluated using the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) method, by measuring over a million data points located across almost the whole zone of the tested specimens. It has been shown under various test conditions such as differing temperatures and strain rates that the average misorientation increases linearly with the increase of creep strains. As a result, it is confirmed that it is possible to assess the remaining creep fracture life from its average misorientation value regardless of the testing temperature and strain rate. In addition, the deformation and fracture mechanisms of various types of mechanical damage, such as tensile, impact, and creep conditions, were discussed by evaluating the characteristics of misorientation distribution. As a result, it has been revealed that creep damage affects a large area of the material, but it is localized near grain boundaries, which is completely different from that of tensile or impact damage. In conclusion, detailed investigation into the cross section of fracture samples using the EBSD misorientation analysis allows for the qualitative estimation of the fracture mode under various applied stress conditions, the cause of the fracture.     

fracture behavior of intercritically treated complex structure in medium-carbon 6Ni steel

The fracture behavior of complex structure in 6Ni-0.3C steel in which the intercritical treatment in the range of 630 °C to 670 °C from the initial microstructure of coarse-grained martensite can control the amount and distribution of fibrous martensite has been investigated. The hardness increases, but the impact toughness decreases with increasing the temperature and time of the intercritical treatment. As the amount of martensite increases and the martensite coarsens with increasing the temperature and time, the fracture along the prior austenite grain boundaries becomes predominant and the fracture mode is changed from dimple type to low energy tear type. This fracture behavior is attributed to the increase in stress concentration susceptibility at the ferrite-coarser martensite interfaces along the prior austenite grain boundaries.     

Impact of Martensite Spatial Distribution on Quasi-Static and Dynamic Deformation Behavior of Dual-Phase Steel

The effects of microstructure parameters of dual-phase steels on tensile high strain dynamic deformation characteristic were examined in this study. Cold-rolled steel sheets were annealed using three different annealing process parameters to obtain three different dual-phase microstructures of varied ferrite and martensite phase fraction. The volume fraction of martensite obtained in two of the steels was near identical (~ 19 pct) with a subtle difference in its spatial distribution. In the first microstructure variant, martensite was mostly found to be situated at ferrite grain boundaries and in the second variant, in addition to at grain boundaries, in-grain martensite was also observed. The third microstructure was very different from the above two with respect to martensite volume fraction (~ 67 pct) and its morphology. In this case, martensite packets were surrounded by a three-dimensional ferrite network giving an appearance of core and shell type microstructure. All the three steels were tensile deformed at strain rates ranging from 2.7 × 10^?4 (quasi-static) to 650 s^?1 (dynamic range). Field-emission scanning electron microscope was used to characterize the starting as well as post-tensile deformed microstructures. Dual-phase steel consisting of small martensite volume fraction (~ 19 pct), irrespective of its spatial distribution, demonstrated high strain rate sensitivity and on the other hand, steel with large martensite volume fraction (~ 67 pct) displayed a very little strain rate sensitivity. Interestingly, total elongation was found to increase with increasing strain rate in the dynamic regime for steel with core–shell type of microstructure containing large martensite volume fraction. The observed enhancement in plasticity in dynamic regime was attributed to adiabatic heating of specimen. To understand the evolving damage mechanism, the fracture surface and the vicinity of fracture ends were studied in all the three dual-phase steels.     

Effects of Strain Rate and Plastic Work on Martensitic Transformation Kinetics of Austenitic Stainless Steel 304

The martensitic transformation behavior and mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel 304 were studied by both experiments and numerical simulation.Room temperature tensile tests were carried out at various strain rates to investigate the effect on volume fraction of martensite,temperature increase and flow stress.The results show that with increasing strain rate,the local temperature increases,which suppresses the transformation of martensite.To take into account the dependence on strain level,strain rate sensitivity and thermal effects,a kinetic model of martensitic transformation was proposed and constitutive modeling on stress-strain response was conducted.The validity of the proposed model has been proved by comparisons between simulation results and experimental ones.     

Deformation and fracture behavior of two Al-Mg-Si alloys

Deformation and fracture behavior of two Al-Mg-Si alloys in different aging conditions has been studied by tensile testing, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation. Tensile test results show that the strain hardening exponents (n values) of the two alloys decrease sharply at the early stage of artificial aging and are only 0.045 and 0.06, respectively, in the overaged condition. The sharp decrease of work hardening rate is believed to be one major reason that results in the rapid decrease of elongation to failure at the early stage of artificial aging. In fully aged conditions, dislocations are concentrated in narrow bands during plastic deformation of these alloys, which is responsible for the very low n values of the Al-Mg-Si alloys in peak aged and overaged conditions. The Si particles formed in the interior of grains of the higher Si containing alloy reduce the inhomogeneous deformation behavior. The TEM results show that large precipitates and precipitate-free zones (PFZs) along grain boundaries are formed in peak aged and overaged conditions, and SEM observations demonstrate that the tensile fracture modes of the two alloys in these aging conditions are completely intergranular with many small cusps decorated on facets of the fractured grain boundaries. Thus, the fracture process of both alloys is suggested to be that in which the high local stresses, built up where the slip band impinges on the grain boundaries, nucleate voids at the grain boundary precipitates by decohesion of the particle/PFZ interface, and then coalescence of these voids within the PFZ leads to the final fracture of these alloys.     

冲击荷载作用下热处理花岗岩动态力学特性研究

为研究冲击速度和热处理温度对黑云母花岗岩动态力学特性的影响,利用改进的霍普金森压杆系统对25~800 ℃共9个温度等级的热处理试样分别进行3种弹速下的冲击压缩试验。试验结果表明：随着冲击速度的增加,25~700 ℃热处理试样的应力—应变曲线由“Ⅱ型”转变为“Ⅰ型”,而800 ℃热处理试样均表现出“Ⅰ型”应力—应变曲线特征。同一温度热处理下试块的峰值应力、应变和平均应变均随动荷载的升高而增大。相同的冲击速度下,300 ℃热处理试样的动力学性能有所改善,500 ℃后试样的动力学性能开始逐渐劣化。同一温度热处理试样的破碎程度随冲击速度的增加而增加;相同冲击速度下,热处理试样的破碎程度随温度的升高先减弱后增强。     

Ultrafine Structure and High Strength in Cold-Rolled Martensite

Structural refinement by cold rolling (10 to 80?pct reductions) of interstitial free (IF) steel containing Mn and B has been investigated from samples with different initial structures: (a) lath martensite, (b) coarse ferrite (grain size 150???m), and (c) fine ferrite (22???m). Unalloyed IF steel with a coarse grain size (120???m) has also included based on a previous study. Deformation microstructures and structural parameters have been analyzed by transmission electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction, and mechanical properties have been characterized by hardness and tensile testing. At low to medium strains, lath martensite transforms into a cell block structure composed of cell block boundaries and cell boundaries with only a negligible change in strength. At medium to large strains, cell block structures in all samples refine with increasing strain and the hardening rate is constant (stage IV). A strong effect of the initial structure is observed on both the structural refinement and the strength increase. This effect is largest in lath martensite and smallest in unalloyed ferrite. No saturation in structural refinement and strength is observed. The discussion covers the transformation of lath martensite into a cell block structure at low to medium strains where the driving force is suggested to be a decrease in the dislocation line energy. Medium to large strain-hardening mechanisms are discussed together with structure-strength relationships assuming additive stress contributions from dislocations, boundaries, and elements in solid solution. Good agreement is found between flow stress predictions and stress values observed experimentally both in the initial undeformed martensite and in deformed samples.     

Creep and intergranular cracking of Ni-Cr-Fe-C in 360 °C argon

The influence of carbon and chromium on the creep and intergranular (IG) cracking behavior of controlled-purity Ni-xCr-9Fe-yC alloys in 360 °C argon was investigated using constant extension rate tension (CERT) and constant load tension (CLT) testing. The CERT test results at 360 °C show that the degree of IG cracking increases with decreasing bulk chromium or carbon content. The CLT test results at 360 °C and 430 °C reveal that, as the amounts of chromium and carbon in solution decrease, the steady-state creep rate increases. The occurrence of severe IG cracking correlates with a high steady-state creep rate, suggesting that creep plays a role in the IG cracking behavior in argon at 360 °C. The failure mode of IG cracking and the deformation mode of creep are coupled through the formation of grain boundary voids that interlink to form grain boundary cavities, resulting in eventual failure by IG cavitation and ductile overload of the remaining ligaments. Grain boundary sliding may be enhancing grain boundary cavitation by redistributing the stress from inclined to more perpendicular boundaries and concentrating stress at discontinuities for the boundaries oriented 45 deg with respect to the tensile axis. Additions of carbon or chromium, which reduce the creep rate over all stress levels, also reduce the amount of IG fracture in CERT experiments. A damage accumulation model was formulated and applied to CERT tests to determine whether creep damage during a CERT test controls failure. Results show that, while creep plays a significant role in CERT experiments, failure is likely controlled by ductile overload caused by reduction in area resulting from grain boundary void formation and interlinkage. Thomas M. Angeliu, formerly Graduate Student Research Assistant, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,.     

1300 MPa级Nb微合金化DH钢的组织性能

设计了不同相构成的超高强DH钢,抗拉强度均大于1300 MPa,组织由铁素体、马氏体、残留奥氏体和极少量碳化物构成。对比了不同相构成对超高强DH钢力学性能和应变硬化行为等的影响,并深入研究了残留奥氏体在超高强度DH钢中的作用机制。结果表明:随着马氏体和残留奥氏体体积分数的增大,铁素体体积分数的减小,实验钢屈服和抗拉强度同时升高,而延伸率呈先增大后减小趋势。软韧相铁素体体积分数的减小和硬相马氏体体积分数的增大导致屈服强度和抗拉强度增加。相对于回火马氏体,淬火马氏体对强度的提升更显著,在拉伸过程中转变的残留奥氏体的量是引起延伸率变化的主要原因,组织中显著的带状组织会造成颈缩后延伸率的明显降低。通过对应变硬化行为的分析表明,随着真应变的增大,应变硬化率呈减小的趋势,在真应变大于2%后的大范围内,对于应变硬化率,DH1>DH2>DH3,主要与铁素体体积分数有关;在真应变大于5.73%后,DH2钢的应变硬化率高于DH1钢和DH3钢,主要与DH2钢中更显著的TRIP效应有关。除了残留奥氏体体积分数,残留奥氏体中的碳含量对TRIP效应同样有显著的影响。较高比例的硬相马氏体组织结合适当比例的软韧相铁素体和残留奥氏体有助于DH2钢获得最良好的强塑积13.17 GPa·%,其中屈服强度达880 MPa,抗拉强度达1497 MPa,均匀延伸率为6.71%,总伸长率为8.8%,颈缩后延伸率为2.09%,屈强比0.59。      

Cr-Al钢焊接热影响区冲击韧性研究

本文采用模拟焊接热循环试验方法,测定了不同峰值温度下Cr-Al钢冲击韧性的变化,并对各峰温下的断口形貌、金相组织、晶粒度及析出物等进行了观察和鉴定。结果表明,随着峰值温度的提高,冲击韧性下降,断口形貌由韧窝状变成解理或准解理状。模拟热循环的峰温高于Ac_3时,随着峰温的提高,奥氏体晶粒明显长大,马氏体板条尺寸也相应增大,因此冲击韧性相应下降。模拟热循环的峰温低于Ac_3时,高温下马氏体板条内的碳进一步析出,基体软化,塑性提高;马氏体板条变得弯曲,碳化物聚集成球状,致使冲击韧性明显提高。     

The hydrogen embrittlement of Fe-Ni martensites

Iron alloys containing 20 and 30 pct Ni and 3 to 4 cu cm H per 100 g metal have been subjected to slow strain-rate tensile tests in a study of hydrogen embrittlement. In the lower nickel massive martensite alloy, embrittlement is manifest as the cracking of prior austenite grain boundaries and is severe at room temperature but less marked at -196°C; while in the higher nickel acicular martensite alloy, the embrittlement observed at 20°C does not occur at —196°C. Hydrogen embrittlement in these materials is believed to be the result of high hydrogen contents in the vicinity of the prior austenite grain boundaries combined with stress concentrations caused by boundary perturbations which result from the impact of the martensite shears. During deformation, microcracks form and propagate in the prior austenite grain boundaries, probably assisted by internal hydrogen pressure and the lowering of crack surface energy by hydrogen adsorption. The temperature dependence and the effect of the type of martensite on the embrittlement can be explained by their effects on the hydrogen content and stress concentrations at prior austenite grain boundaries during deformation.     

Serrated Flow and Dynamic Strain Aging in Fe-Mn-C TWIP Steel

The tensile behavior, serrated flow, and dynamic strain aging of Fe-(20 to 24)Mn-(0.4 to 0.6)C twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel have been investigated. A mathematical approach to analyze the DSA and PLC band parameters has been developed. For Fe-(20 to 24)Mn-(0.4 to 0.6)C TWIP steel with a theoretical ordering index (TOI) between 0.1 and 0.3, DSA can occur at the very beginning of plastic deformation and provide serrations during work hardening, while for TOI less than 0.1 the occurrence of DSA is delayed and twinning-dominant work hardening remains relatively smooth. The critical strain for the onset of DSA and PLC bands in Fe-Mn-C TWIP steels decreases as C content increases, while the numbers of serrations and bands increase. As Mn content increases, the critical strain for DSA and PLC band varies irregularly, but the numbers of serrations and bands increase. For Fe-(20 to 24)Mn-(0.4 to 0.6)C TWIP steel with grain size of about 10 to 20 μm, the twinning-induced work hardening rate is about 2.5 to 3.0 GPa, while the DSA-dominant hardening rate is about 2.0 GPa on average. With increasing engineering strain from 0.01 to 0.55 at an applied strain rate of 0.001s^?1, the cycle time for PLC bands in Fe-Mn-C TWIP steel increases from 6.5 to 162 seconds, while the band velocity decreases from 4.5 to 0.5 mm s^?1, and the band strain increases from 0.005 to 0.08. Increasing applied strain rate leads to a linear increase of band velocity despite composition differences. In addition, the influence of the Mn and C content on the tensile properties of Fe-Mn-C TWIP steel has been also studied. As C content increases, the yield strength and tensile strength of Fe-Mn-C TWIP steel increase, but the total elongation variation against C content is dependent on Mn content. As Mn content increases, the yield strength and tensile strength decrease, while the total elongation increases, despite C content. Taking both tensile properties and serrated flow behavior into consideration, Fe-22Mn-0.4C TWIP steel shows excellent mechanical performance with a high product of tensile strength and total elongation and a slightly serrated stress–strain response. To suppress the negative effect of DSA in Fe-Mn-C TWIP steels on the stability of tensile behavior, a TOI lower than 0.1 is strongly suggested.     

Void formation during tensile testing of dual phase steels

The effects of martensite volume fraction (MVF) and strain state on necking behavior, post-uniform elongation, and the nucleation and growth of voids in thin sheet dual phase steel, strained in tension, were investigated. Steel containing, in weight percent, 0.08C, 1.45Mn, and 0.21Si, was cold rolled 50 pct and intercritically annealed to produce dual phase microstructures. The effects of MVF were evaluated with a series of constant geometry tensile samples with martensite volume fractions between 5 and 40 pct. The effects of strain state within the neck were evaluated with a series of constant thickness samples with 20 pct MVF and with width variations between 3 and 25 mm. A transition from diffuse to localized necking, as well as a decrease in post-uniform elongation, occurred with both an increase in MVF and sample width. Metallographic analysis of deformed samples revealed that the void nucleation occurs primarily at martensite particles by three distinct mechanisms. The void size and density in the necked region increased toward the fracture surface in all samples and the void density was significantly higher for the samples which exhibited localized necking. However, independent of neck geometry, voids were nucleated uniformly throughout the samples, and were associated with the martensite. The difference in void size and density between the samples with different necking behavior indicates that void growth is a consequence of the strain gradient while the shape of the voids depends on both the strain state and strain gradient. The implications of the void structure analysis are interpreted based on the dual phase microstructure. Formerly Graduate Research Assistant, Colorado School of Mines.     

Tensile and fracture properties of type 316 stainless steel after creep

The effects of creep on the mechanical properties of type 316 stainless steel were studied. Tensile and Charpy specimens were machined from the oversize specimens crept at 750 °C and 103 MPa. The ambient fracture energy was found to deteriorate rapidly after creep. The ambient yield stress was increased moderately, but the tensile ductility was severely reduced. The effects of intergranular carbides alone on mechanical properties were studied with specimens thermal aged without load. These carbides were shown to cause a moderate reduction in fracture energy and tensile ductility but had little effect on yield stress. Extensive grain boundary separations were observed on the fracture surfaces. SEM studies showed that these grain boundaries were covered with micro voids initiated by the dense intergranular carbides. Frequently, large dimples on grain boundary joined up and initiated shear fracture into the grain. In the crept specimens additional microstructural changes in the form of intragranular carbides and subgrain boundaries were observed. Both are responsible for the increase in yield stress and the further reduction in tensile ductility and fracture energy. The intragranular carbides also modified the size and density of the dimples on the fracture surfaces. Formerly with Metallurgy and Materials Science Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973.     

CSP流程生产经济型热轧双相钢的工艺与组织性能

 为了在CSP产线上开发新一代经济型热轧双相钢,并确定生产的最佳成分和工艺,介绍了在武钢CSP生产线进行580MPa级热轧双相钢的工业化生产试制情况。分别采用C-Mn-Si系和C-Mn-Si-Cr系钢为原料,通过控制轧制和基于超强冷却设备的控制冷却工艺,成功开发出抗拉强度580MPa级热轧双相钢。通过比较分析2种成分钢的力学性能和微观组织,结果表明：经济型的C-Mn-Si系钢相对于C-Mn-Si-Cr系钢具有屈服强度低、屈强比小、伸长率大的特点,虽然马氏体量相对较少,但具有马氏体呈岛状更加均匀分布在铁素体晶界上等典型双相钢的特征,同时提出了生产过程中控制铁素体析出量和促进马氏体形成的具体措施。     

The effect of microstructure on the deformation modes and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8Mo: Part I. Widmanstätten structures

An alpha + beta Ti-6Al-2Nb-lTa-0.8Mo alloy with an initial Widmanstätten structure was thermally treated to produce a wide range of microstructures. The effects of individual microstructural parameters on deformation behavior and mechanical properties were investigated. The results show that the Widmanstätten colony boundaries are major barriers to slip. However, the slip distance can be decreased to a distance equal to the thickness of acicular alpha by transforming the beta phase in the Widmanstätten structure to martensite by quenching from 950°C. The decrease in slip distance is accompanied by a 25 pct increase in yield strength with no loss in ductility. A large decrease in ductility occurs after excursions above the beta-transus. The development of both equiaxed beta grains during heating in the beta phase field and continuous grain boundary alpha during cooling in the alpha + beta phase field leads to strain localization along prior beta grain boundaries.     

Custom 450高强度不锈钢的动态再结晶行为

为了探究Custom 450钢的动态再结晶行为,采用Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机,在变形温度为1 050～1 200℃和应变速率为0.01～10 s-1的变形条件下开展了单道次等温压缩试验.研究结果显示,在变形温度为1050～1 200℃和应变速率为1.0～10 s-1的变形范围内,钢虽发生了完全的动态再结晶,...     

Mechanical Behaviors of Ultrafine-Grained 301 Austenitic Stainless Steel Produced by Equal-Channel Angular Pressing

The technique of equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) was used to refine the microstructure of an AISI 301 austenitic stainless steel (SS). An ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure consisting mainly of austenite and a few martensite was achieved in 301 steel after ECAP processing for four passes at 523 K (250 °C). By submitting the as-ECAP rods to annealing treatment in the temperature range from 853 K to 893 K (580 °C to 620 °C) for 60 minutes, fully austenitic microstructures with grain sizes of 210 to 310 nm were obtained. The uniaxial tensile tests indicated that UFG 301 austenitic SS had an excellent combination of high yield strength (>1.0 GPa) and high elongation-to-fracture (>30 pct). The tensile stress–strain curves exhibited distinct yielding peak followed by obvious Lüders deformation. Measurements showed that Lüders elongation increased with an increase in strength as well as a decrease in grain size. The microstructural changes in ultrafine austenite grains during tensile deformation were tracked by X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscope. It was found that the strain-induced phase transformation from austenite to martensite took place soon after plastic deformation. The transformation rate with strain and the maximum strain-induced martensite were promoted significantly by ultrafine austenite grains. The enhanced martensitic transformation provided extra strain-hardening ability to sustain the propagation of Lüders bands and large uniform plastic deformation. During tensile deformation, the Lüders bands and martensitic transformation interacted with each other and made great contribution to the excellent mechanical properties in UFG austenitic SS.     

Flow Curve and Failure Modeling for High‐Mn Steels on a Microstructural Scale

A microstructural model for flow curve and failure modeling based on the representative volume element (RVE) approach is developed for high‐Mn steels. The polycrystalline structure is generated by discrete Voronoi tessellation. Physically based material models for mechanical twinning and the ε‐martensite phase transformation are implemented for describing the hardening behavior. A ductile damage model based on the multiaxial state of strain calculates the fracture and failure. Uniaxial tensile tests were carried out for the steel 22Mn0.6C with varying grain size and for a temperature range of 123–423 K. Experimental results are in good agreement with the calculated RVE models.     

1 500 MPa级高伸长率双相钢的组织性能分析

为了进一步提高双相钢的性能,通过合理的化学成分设计,在实验室研发了 1 500 MPa级Nb-Ti微合金化的高伸长率冷轧双相钢,并且利用连退模拟试验机、扫描电镜等设备,系统研究了退火温度和过时效温度对双相钢组织性能的影响.结果表明,抗拉强度随着退火温度的升高而增大,在840℃时可达到1 650 MPa.当温度继续升高时...