Workpiece surface modification using electrical discharge machining

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a widely used process in the mould / die and aerospace industries. Following a brief summary of the process, the paper reviews published work on the deliberate surface alloying of various workpiece materials using EDM. Details are given of operations involving powder metallurgy (PM) tool electrodes and the use of powders suspended in the dielectric fluid, typically aluminium, nickel, titanium, etc. Following this, experimental results are presented on the surface alloying of AISI H13 hot work tool steel during a die sink operation using partially sintered WC / Co electrodes operating in a hydrocarbon oil dielectric. An L8 fractional factorial Taguchi experiment was used to identify the effect of key operating factors on output measures (electrode wear, workpiece surface hardness, etc.). With respect to microhardness, the percentage contribution ratios (PCR) for peak current, electrode polarity and pulse on time were ˜24, 20 and 19%, respectively. Typically, changes in surface metallurgy were measured up to a depth of ˜30 μm (with a higher than normal voltage of ˜270 V) and an increase in the surface hardness of the recast layer from ˜620 HK_0.025 up to ˜1350 HK_0.025.     

The influence of the microstructure of hardened tool steel workpiece on the wear of PCBN cutting tools

Due to the recent developments of advanced cutting tool materials in the superbarasive family, such as cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools, the interest in cutting hardened steels has increased significantly. High flexibility and ability to manufacture complex workpiece geometry in one set up is the main advantage of hard turning compared to grinding. The focus of this study is to investigate the performance and wear behavior of CBN tools in finish, dry turning of four different hardened steels, treated to the same hardness R_c = 54. The following four materials were machined: X155CrMoV 12 cold work steel (AISI D2), X38CrMoV5 (AISI H11) hot work steel, 35NiCrMo16 hot work steel and 100Cr6 bearing steel (AISI 52100). A large variation in tool wear rate was observed in the machining of these steels. The tool flank grooves have been correlated to the microstructure of these steels, namely the presence of various carbides. The chip study reveals that there is presence of different amounts of white layers in machining these steels.     

Recast layer removal after electrical discharge machining via Taguchi analysis: A feasibility study

This study explores the feasibility of removing the recast layer (RCL) using etching and mechanical grinding for Ni-based superalloy materials by means of electrical discharge machining (EDM). The EDM process is widely used for machining hard metals and performing specific tasks that cannot be achieved using conventional techniques. The sparks produced during the EDM process melt the metal's surface, which then undergo ultra rapid quenching. A layer forms on the workpiece surface defined as a recast layer after solidification. Molds and dies desire to remove the RCL even though it is hard and has good matrix adherence.This experiment is divided into three stages. The first stage acquires a thick recast layer by using EDM with a larger discharging energy. A thick recast layer is essential for verification of the EDM technique for observing the recast process. Thus, this work applies the Taguchi L₁₈ analytical method to acquire the thick recast layer. The second stage optimizes the recast layer removal technique. Therefore, the thick recast layer is intentionally made in the first stage. This work determines the second stage setting using Taguchi's recommendation. Thus, the L₉ orthogonal array sets up the etching and mechanical grinding parameters and observes the recast layer removal quantity analysis. Finally, an experiment studies the surface characteristics of Ni-based superalloys, such as composition and micro-hardness after removing the recast layer.     

FLOW STRESS MODEL FOR HARD MACHINING OF AISI H13 WORK TOOL STEEL

1. Introduction The manufacturing process of dies/molds is one of the most demanding tasks in manufacturing en- gineering. Complex workpiece geometries, high material hardness as well as short lead time are among the main obstacles. At the same time, quality requirements become more and more important due to in- tensified competition and quality awareness. Traditionally, the production of molds/dies generally in- volves conventional machining in the annealed (soft) state, followed by heat trea…     

Performance and Surface Integrity of Ti6Al4V After Sinking EDM with Special Graphite Electrodes

Titanium and its alloys have high chemical reactivity with most of the cutting tools. This makes it difficult to work with these alloys using conventional machining processes. Electrical discharge machining (EDM) emerges as an alternative technique to machining these materials. In this work, it is investigated the performance of three special grades of graphite as electrodes when ED-Machining Ti6Al4V samples under three different regimes. The main influences of electrical parameters are discussed for the samples material removal rate, volumetric relative wear and surface roughness. The samples surfaces were evaluated using SEM images, microhardness measurements, and x-ray diffraction. It was found that the best results for samples material removal rate, surface roughness, and volumetric relative wear were obtained for the graphite electrode with 10-μm particle size and negative polarity. For all samples machined by EDM and characterized by x-ray (XRD), it was identified the presence of titanium carbides. For the finish EDM regimes, the recast layer presents an increased amount of titanium carbides compared to semi-finish and rough regimes.     

Cutting performance of solid ceramic end milling tools in machining hardened AISI H13 steel

Ceramic tools have been widely used in the cutting of hard-to-machine materials, but the applications of solid ceramic milling cutters are limited due to their design and manufacturing restrictions. This research investigates the cutting performances of four solid ceramic end milling tools including Si₃N₄, Ti(C,N), SG4 and LT55 in machining hardened AISI H13 steel (HRC 60-62). The results show that the cutting forces of ceramic end milling tools are less than that of the referenced cemented carbide tool, and such ceramic tools of Si₃N₄, Ti(C,N) and LT55 produce better surface qualities and have longer tool lives. With excellent mechanical peoperties including hardness, bending srength and fracture toughness, the ceramic tool of Ti(C,N) presents the best cutting performance taking the cutting force, machined surface quality and tool life in consideration simultaneously. The research has proven the application feasibility of ceramic materials in the manufacture of solid tools. The solid ceramic end milling tools are geometric extensions for traditional ceramic tools and they can be used in machining hardened steels.     

Machining Performance and Surface Integrity of AISI D2 Die Steel Machined Using Electrical Discharge Surface Grinding Process

The aim of this study is to establish optimum machining conditions for EDSG of AISI D2 die steel through an experimental investigation using Taguchi Methodology. To achieve combined grinding and electrical discharge machining, metal matrix composite electrodes (Cu-SiC_p) were processed through powder metallurgy route. A rotary spindle attachment was developed to perform the EDSG experimental runs on EDM machine. Relationships were developed between various input parameters such as peak current, speed, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, abrasive particle size, and abrasive particle concentration, and output characteristics such as material removal rate and surface roughness. The optimized parameters were further validated by conducting confirmation experiments.     

Effects of deep cryogenic treatment on the wear development of H13A tungsten carbide inserts when machining AISI 1045 steel

In this study, the effects of deep cryogenic treatment (93 K) on the surface and sub-surface wear development of H13A cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide cutting inserts during the wet machining of AISI 1045 steel were investigated. Cutting inserts were subjected to short periods (171–553 s) of turning at cutting speeds of 50–140 m/min, during which time mass measurements were taken and the worn edges were imaged and scanned, by optical microscopy and light interferometry, at regular intervals. Sections were taken following machining so that sub-surface features could be observed by scanning electron microscopy. It was determined that cryogenic treatment resulted in a 9.2 % increase in hardness and an increase in abrasive wear resistance, although microstructural changes and sub-surface behaviours suggested a corresponding decrease in toughness may have occurred.     

Wear behaviour of steel coatings produced by friction surfacing

Friction surfacing was performed to produce multi-layer coatings of AISI 1024, AISI 1045 and AISI H13 over mild steel substrates where a continuous joining was achieved between adjacent layers and between the clad and the substrate. Microscopic and hardness characterization revealed the presence of bainitic and martensitic microstructures which influenced the hardness of the coatings. The study aimed to determine which material combination was more wear-resistant. The analysis suggested that AISI 1024 presents the least wear, both in terms of friction coefficient and wear rate. This is due to the formation of adherent protective oxide layer which is not present in both the AISI 1045 and AISI H13 steels.     

Quantification of surface damage of tool steels after EDM

The surface transformation and damage in AISI O1, A2, D2 and D6 tool steels after EDM were investigated. The results show that the recast layer is composed of two distinct layers: a topmost layer solidifying inwards from the specimen surface and an intermediate layer solidifying outwards from the base of the molten metal. The depth of surface cracks is found to correlate well with the thickness of the white layer, the latter being a layer of rapidly solidified material which, depending on the tool steel material, may consist either primarily of the topmost recast layer, or both the topmost and a large part of the intermediate recast layer. The density of surface cracks, however, correlates better with the thickness of the overall recast layer.

Attempts were made to quantify the depth of white (or damaged) layer with respect to the process parameters and surface roughness after EDM. It is found that with a fixed dielectric and flushing condition, the damaged layer correlates well with the pulse energy irrespective of thetool steel material. On the other hand, even though the thickness of the white layer increases with the surface roughness, the result shows considerably more scatter. Based on the present findings, ways of estimating the depth of the damaged layer produced by EDM are proposed.     

低盐溶液电火花-电解复合加工微小方孔试验

综合电火花加工快速蚀除材料与电解加工溶解重铸层的优势,提出了在低电导率的NaNO3溶液中使用电极逐层往复式铣削加工微小方孔的电火花-电解复合加工方法,并研究了电解液浓度、电压和电容参数对微小方孔加工质量的影响。结果表明:电解液浓度与加工电压对微小方孔加工质量影响较大,电容影响相对较小。选用最优加工参数在100μm厚的321不锈钢片上加工微小方孔,得到的方孔加工质量好、侧壁表面无重铸层,且工具电极相对损耗仅0.05%。     

EDM performance of Cr/Cu-based composite electrodes

Electrode materials for electrical discharge machining (EDM) are usually graphite, copper and copper alloys because these materials have high melting temperature, and excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. The electrodes made by using powder metallurgy technology from special powders have been used to modify EDM surfaces in recent years, to improve wear and corrosion resistance. However, electrodes are normally fabricated at high temperatures and pressures, such that fabrication is expensive. This paper proposes a new method of blending the copper powders contained resin with chromium powders to form tool electrodes. Such electrodes are made at low pressure (20 MPa) and temperature (200 °C) in a hot mounting machine. The results showed that using such electrodes facilitated the formation of a modified surface layer on the work piece after EDM, with remarkable corrosion resistant properties. The optimal mixing ratio, appropriate pressure, and proper machining parameters (such as polarity, peak current, and pulse duration) were used to investigate the effect of the material removal rate (MRR), electrode wear rate (EWR), surface roughness, and thickness of the recast layer on the usability of these electrodes. According to the experimental results, a mixing ratio of Cu–0wt%Cr and a sinter pressure of 20 MPa obtained an excellent MRR. Moreover, this work also reveals that the composite electrodes obtained a higher MRR than Cu metal electrodes; the recast layer was thinner and fewer cracks were present on the machined surface. Furthermore, the Cr elements in the composite electrode migrated to the work piece, resulting in good corrosion resistance of the machined surface after EDM.     

Finite element modelling of the thermo-mechanical behavior of coatings under extreme contact loading in dry machining

During metal cutting processes, intensive friction and high temperature generated at the tool chip interface affect the cutting zone of the tool, by inducing damage and wear. To improve the cutting tool's life, thin hard coatings, synthesized by physical or chemical vapor deposition (PVD or CVD) techniques, are often used as protective layers. In this work, numerical/theoretical analysis of dry machining has been performed to study the impact of different coating layers on the machining process. Four cases are considered: an uncoated tool made of tungsten carbide (WC-Co) and coated tungsten carbides in three different configurations. The first one is made of one layer namely TiN, the second one (hypothetical carbide insert) is composed of two layers (Al₂O₃ and TiN), and the last one has three layers (TiCN, Al₂O₃ and TiN). The workpiece material is an AISI 316L stainless steel. All cutting conditions are fixed in order to highlight the effect of coatings independently from others influencing parameters. The analysis has shown the impact of the different configurations of coatings on the temperature level inside the tool and on its surface, on the pressure and also on the cutting and feed forces.     

Tool life and tool wear in the semi-finish milling of inclined surfaces

Functional die and mold components have complex geometries and are made of high hardness materials, which make them difficult to machine. This work contributes to a better understanding of this type of process and of the wear mechanisms of tools used in semi-finishing operations of hardened steels for dies and molds. Several milling experiments were carried out to cut AISI H13 steel with 50 HR_C of hardness using the high-speed milling technique. The main goal was to verify the influence of workpiece surface inclination and cutting conditions on tool life and tool wear mechanisms. The main conclusions were the inclination of the machined surface strongly influences tool life and tool wear involves different mechanisms. At the beginning of tool life, the wear was caused mainly by abrasion on the flank face plus diffusion and attrition on the rake face. At the end of tool life, the mechanisms were adhesions and microchipping at the cutting edge.     

Cutting performances, mechanical property and microstructure of ultra-fine grade Ti(C, N)-based cermets

The two cutting tools obtained from ultra-fine grade Ti(C, N)-based cermets were tested in the dry cutting of a medium carbon steel (AISI1045). Microstructure and mechanical properties were studied. Wear mechanisms (mainly diffusion and oxidation) were investigated in detail and compared each other in order to better understand key aspects due to thermal wear mechanisms. Comparing tool A with B, under the adopted cutting conditions, the tool A has a better resistance to oxidation deformation in machining medium carbon steel due to the higher hardness, although tool B has higher bending strength and fracture toughness.     

Machinability analysis in turning tungsten–copper composite for application in EDM electrodes

Electro-discharge machining (EDM) is widely used in tooling industry, where it is applied on materials, which are too hard to be machined with conventional techniques. The tungsten–copper is broadly used as an EDM electrode for machining of die steel and tungsten carbide workpieces. As, tungsten–copper electrode is more costly than conventional electrodes, there is a need to understand the machinability aspects in turning of this material. Hence, an attempt has been made in this paper to study the effects of cutting conditions on machinability characteristics such as cutting force, feed force, depth force, machining force, power, specific cutting force, arithmetic average surface roughness and maximum peak to valley height during tungsten–copper turning with K10 carbide cutting tool. The response surface methodology (RSM) based second order mathematical models of machinability aspects are developed using the data obtained through full factorial design (FFD). The adequacy of the machinability models is tested through the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The response surface analysis reveals that a combination of higher cutting speed with low-to-medium feed rate is advantageous in reducing the forces, power and surface roughness, which in turn increases the specific cutting force.     

Cutting force estimation in sculptured surface milling

Cutting force milling models developed up to now are mostly used for planar milling using end-mills. Only a reduced number of models applying ball-end mills have been developed. Furthermore these models usually only consider horizontal surface machining, even though the main application of ball-end mills is sculptured surface machining. This article proposes a model that is able to estimate the cutting forces in inclined surfaces machined both up-milling and down-milling. For this purpose a semi-mechanistic model has been developed that calculates the cutting forces based on a set of coefficients which depend on the material, the tool, the cutting conditions, the machining direction and the slope of the surface.A coordinate transformation has been included in order to consider the slope milling case with different cutting directions.The model has been tested on two materials, an aluminum alloy Al7075-T6 and a 52 HRC tool steel AISI H13. Validation tests have been carried out on inclined planes using different slopes and different machining directions.The results provide errors below 10% in most of the cases and both the value and shape of the predicted forces adjust the measured cutting force.     

Microstructure and corrosion behaviour of pulsed plasma-nitrided AISI H13 tool steel

The effect of pulsed plasma nitriding temperature and time on the pitting corrosion behaviour of AISI H13 tool steel in 0.9% NaCl solutions was investigated by cyclic polarization. The pitting potential (E_pit) was found to be dependent on the composition, microstructure and morphology of the surface layers, whose properties were determined by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy techniques. The best corrosion protection was observed for samples nitrided at 480 °C and 520 °C. Under such experimental conditions the E_pit-values shifted up to 1.25 V in the positive direction.     

Low Temperature Plasma Nitriding of H13 Steel for Improved Surface Hardness

AISI H13 steel samples were plasma nitrided to improve their surface hardness using a locally developed combined reactor.Pre-ionized RFICP plasma was employed in combination with DC glow discharge and thermal emission source to achieve the nitride precipitates in iron-matrix under low sample temperature.Thick nitride layers over 150 microns could be realized with low RF power of 100 W under the processing time between 1-20 h and low sample temperature of 300℃.The gas mixtures of H2 and N2 were utilized while the processing pressure and the DC bias to the sample were maintained at 0.5 torr and 300 V,respectively.Scanning electron microscope(SEM),energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS),glancing incident angle X-ray diffractometer(GIXD)and Vickers hardness test were employed to characterize the properties of sample surfaces.Significant increases of surface hardness to over 1,000 HV were observed after treatment.     

Influence of processing parameters on the characteristics of surface layers of low temperature plasma nitrocarburized AISI 630 martensitic stainless steel

Plasma nitrocarburizing was performed on solution-treated AISI 630 martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steel samples with a gas mixture of H₂, N₂, and CH₄ with changing temperature, discharge voltage and amount of CH₄. When nitrocarburized with increasing temperature from 380 °C to 430 °C at fixed 25% N₂ and 6% CH₄, the thickness of expanded martensite (α'_N) layer and surface hardness increased up to 10 μm and 1323 HV_0.05, respectively but the corrosion resistance decreased. Though the increase of discharge voltage from 400 V to 600 V increased α'_N layer thickness and surface hardness (up to 13 μm and 1491 HV_0.05, respectively), the treated samples still showed very poor corrosion behavior. Thus, to further improve the corrosion resistance, the influence of variation of the amount of CH₄ in the nitrocarburizing process was investigated. Increasing the CH₄ percentage aided higher corrosion resistance, although it decreased the α'_N layer thickness. The most appropriate conditions for moderate α'_N layer thickness, high surface hardness and better corrosion resistance than the solution-treated bare sample were established, which is plasma nitrocarburizing at 400 °C with 400 V discharge voltage and containing 25% N₂ and 4% CH₄.