Reading and generating normal and transformed sentences.

Three experiments (108 undergraduates) examined the relative contributions made in skilled and unskilled processing by data driven and conceptually driven processes. In Exp I, Ss recalled nouns and complete sentences after having read and generated meaningful and anomalous sentences. Generated and transformed sentences were better recalled than normal sentences if they were meaningful, but not if they were anomalous. Exp II used the same sentences as Exp I, except they were displayed in 3 typographies: normal orientation, mirror transformed, or rotated 180°. Results show that reading the transformed typography increased semantic interword organization. In Exp III, Ss had to generate sentences and read transformed typography. Results duplicate those in Exps I and II. It is concluded that a decrease in the efficiency of data driven processing causes an increase in semantic interword organization. (French abstract) (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive resource demands of reading normal and transformed typography.

Tested the hypothesis that reading sentences presented in transformed typography involves cognitive processes that may not be involved in, or may be automatized during, the reading of normal typography, thus causing superior memory for the transformed sentences. In 2 experiments, 48 undergraduates read normal and inverted sentences while performing a secondary auditory task. Secondary task performance suffered reliably more when the task was carried out while reading transformed as opposed to normal typography. The size of this effect was consistent across the 2 experiments. It is concluded that greater attention demands may be associated with the additional processes invoked when reading transformed typography. Differences in procedures involved in encoding normal and transformed sentences are considered. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced discriminated bar-press avoidance in the rat through appetitive preconditioning.

In 2 experiments with 57 male albino rats, an appetitive preconditioning procedure produced superior performance on a discriminated bar-press avoidance task. The technique was designed to minimize the number of shocks received early in training and consisted primarily of rewarding Ss with food pellets for an avoidance response in addition to terminating the warning stimulus. Ss so preconditioned were found to achieve sustained, high levels of avoidance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anticipating informed consent: An empirical approach.

Discusses the American Psychological Association's ethical standards concerning the misleading of Ss with regard to experimental purposes or procedures, and proposes a "role-play sampling" procedure by which S's likelihood of consent to (and thereby the "reasonableness" of) a proposed experimental procedure can be determined in advance of actual experimentation. The procedure was tested with freshmen and sophomores (N = 106) drawn from the same college population used in 6 published social psychological experiments. Ss examined the experimental procedures used originally in each experiment and indicated their "willingness to consent" to participate in each study. 4 of the 6 experiments had been considered stressful by actual participants; 2 were nonstressful. The effect of varying amounts and kinds of information about each experiment upon consent rates was also examined. Results show both the stress and information factors significantly affected consent rates. Evidence is presented which suggests that the role-play sampling procedure possesses predictive validity in terms of the reaction which may be anticipated from those who subsequently participate in the actual experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of several styles of typography in English.

"Five styles of typography—spaced units, vertical, square span, and arrangement of one phrase per line, and conventional—were compared using untrained subjects. This paper reports two fairly independent series of experiments: a series using a tachistoscope presentation, and a series in which the subjects read passages of about 1500 words… . The tachistoscope series suggests that there are advantages to the new arrangements, but the reading series suggests that subjects must be trained to read these new arrangements before the advantage will be fully realized." From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4LM62C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of corrective testing: An extension.

Conducted a straightforward parametric extension of the immediate feedback and partial credit components of S. L. Pressey's (see record 1950-06064-001) corrective testing procedure. 130 high- and low-test-anxious undergraduates served as Ss. Ss in the feedback conditions were given the opportunity to answer a given item once, twice, 3 times, or 4 times. For purposes of comparison, another group of Ss completed the item, using the conventional multiple choice format. On several measures of Ss' subjective reactions, corrective testing feedback was superior to the conventional multiple choice format. The differences between the various feedback conditions were small but consistent. In particular, providing Ss 2 attempts to answer each item met with the most positive reaction, especially among Ss high in test anxiety. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual sampling after lesions of the superior colliculus in rats.

In 2 experiments with 20 male black-hooded rats, Ss with bilateral lesions of the superior colliculus showed significantly poorer relearning of a horizontal/vertical stripe discrimination than control Ss. In Exp I, all Ss showed disruption of performance when a stimulus–response (S–R) separation was introduced by raising the stimuli above the site of responding. However, colliculectomized Ss were much more disturbed by the S–R separation than were control Ss. In Exp II, all Ss showed lower performance levels when conflicting patterns were introduced into the upper portion of the stimulus doors, but this time Ss with collicular lesions were less disturbed than controls. It is suggested (a) that when the stimulus and response sites are discontinuous, rats must make an appropriate orienting response to effectively sample the visual stimuli and (b) that lesions of the superior colliculus alter performance by interfering with this orienting behavior. The impairment in relearning is attributed to the absence of preoperative overtraining on the discrimination task. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Design and analysis of experiments contrasting the within- and between-subjects manipulation of the independent variable.

The assumption is often made that one may perform an experiment by manipulating the independent variable within Ss or between Ss and that the effect of the independent variable would be the same in the 2 types of experiments. Many experiments in different areas of psychology show that this assumption is often false. In these experiments the design type is treated as an explicit independent variable in a factorially designed experiment. The outcome of these experiments is that there is an interaction between the design type and the substantive independent variable. These experiments are generally inefficiently designed or the results are poorly analyzed. The present paper develops a proper analysis of variance procedure for the analysis of the results of such an experiment and indicates a more efficient experimental design. A computational example is given. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two kinds of recognition.

12 undergraduates classified sentences into 3 categories: sentences not read previously; sentences reappearing in the same typography; and sentences whose words had been read before but in a different typography. Both "new" and "old" sentences were taken from the same passages and, therefore, were similar in context, style, and subject matter. Application of signal-detection analysis to the classifications yielded separate estimates of performance on the basis of graphemic (pictorial) and semantic (linguistic) criteria. It was found that Ss retain for lengthy periods detailed information about the pictorial aspects of sentences they have read. Results are interpreted in terms of cognitive activities or actions underlying the encoding. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Typography manipulations can affect priming of word stem completion in older and younger adults.

The experiments reported here investigated whether changes of typography affected priming of word stem completion performance in older and younger adults. Across all experiments, the typeface in which a word appeared at presentation either did or did not match that of its 3-letter stem at test. In Exp 1, no significant evidence of a typography effect was found when words were presented with a sentence judgment or letter judgment task. However, subsequent experiments revealed that, in both older and younger adults, only words presented with a syllable judgment task gave rise to the typography effect (Exps 2–4). Specifically, perforance was greater when the presentation and test typeface matched than when they did not. Exp 5, which used stem-cued recall, did not reveal a difference between syllable and letter judgment tasks. These findings highlight the complex nature of word stem completion performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An information analysis of verbal and motor responses to symbolic and conventional Arabic numerals.

The responses of Ss to 2 sets of Arabic numerals—one conventional, the other drawn from an 8-line square matrix—were compared. 24 Ss pressed keys to indicate the numeral exposed; 24 Ss called out the numeral. With the verbal responses group, the conventional numerals were consistently superior to the symbolic numerals. With the motor response group, no difference between the numeral sets was found. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of unilateral promise and value of rewards upon cooperation and trust.

2 experiments, utilizing a 2-person, non-zero-sum game were reported. The first experiment investigated the effect of unilateral promise (enforceable or unenforceable) upon cooperation and trust. Ss receiving an enforceable promise were found to be reliably more cooperative than Ss receiving no promise. Ss under both promise conditions rated the promisor as more trustworthy than did Ss under the no-promise condition. The second experiment, investigating the effect of the value of matrix entries (imaginary versus actual rewards) upon collaboration, cooperation, and trust, found no reliable differences on any of the dependent variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Avoiding artifact in the search for bias: The importance of assessing subjects' perceptions of the experiment.

Ss' awareness of the experimenter's hypothesis has been recognized as a threat to the validity of laboratory experiments. After finding that the spontaneous behavior of uninstructed Ss was not similar to the behavior of Ss instructed to play a role, D. E. Carlston and J. L. Cohen (see record 1981-12761-001) suggested that concerns with this problem are exaggerated. In the present paper, methodological problems with the Carlston and Cohen study are identified, and a study designed to examine them is reported. 40 male and 40 female undergraduates participated in a conceptually similar experiment. Ss were or were not explicitly told an experimental hypothesis and were or were not instructed to play the role of a good or cooperative S. An extensive postexperimental questioning procedure was used to determine the effect of the manipulations on Ss' perceptions. Overall data from the explicit-hypothesis conditions replicated the Carlston and Cohen finding. However, only Ss who indicated on the postexperimental questionnaire that they did not believe that the explicitly stated hypothesis was the true purpose of the experiment replicated their results. When Ss were not blatantly told the hypothesis (implicit-hypothesis conditions), uninstructed control Ss and good-role-play Ss behaved similarly. Results are interpreted and discussed in terms of Ss' phenomenological views of the experiment rather than traditional S roles. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unconditioned stimulus rehearsal and the retention and enhancement of differential "fear" conditioning: Effects of trait and state anxiety.

In 2 experiments, the effect of anxiety on the cued-unconditioned stimulus (UCS) rehearsal phenomenon was investigated (T. Jones and G. C. L. Davey, see record 1990-18981-001). In Exp 1, postconditioning rehearsal of the UCS resulted in an increase in CR strength during extinction, but only in Ss with high levels of trait anxiety. An induced mood procedure was used in Exp 2, and a postrehearsal increase in CR strength was found in Ss who had undergone induced somatic anxiety but not in Ss who had undergone induced worrying or who underwent a neutral induction procedure. In both experiments, the increase in CR strength following UCS rehearsal was associated with inflated ratings of the aversiveness of rehearsing the UCS. These results are discussed in terms of the ways in which anxiety might influence UCS rehearsal and facilitate physiological CRs to the CS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination and memory for symmetry in young children.

Conducted 3 experiments to assess the development of symmetry perception in children between the ages of 4 and 6 yrs. Exp I employed a learning task in which 72 Ss were asked at different times to discriminate vertically symmetrical, obliquely symmetrical, and horizontally symmetrical holistic patterns from asymmetrical ones. Results reveal a developmental progression: 4-yr-olds discriminated only vertical; 5-yr-olds, vertical and horizontal; and 6-yr-olds, vertical, horizontal, and oblique. Exp II retested the 18 6-yr-olds with fragmented patterns of the different symmetries; these Ss regressed to the performance level of 4-yr-olds and only discriminated vertical. Exp III, conducted with 18 Ss, used a memory-production task with new vertical, oblique, horizontal, and asymmetrical patterns constructed to 4, 5, or 6 elements. Measures of the goodness and accuracy of Ss' reproductions were consistent with data from the discrimination-learning experiments in terms of age, stimulus orientation, and stimulus complexity. These studies support the view that vertical symmetry is special perceptually and developmentally and that, after vertical, horizontal predominates, followed by oblique. The role of symmetry in early perceptual development and the value of child–adult perceptual comparisons are discussed. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compound conditioning in honeybees.

In Exp I, 42 free-flying honeybees were extinguished in choice tests after reinforcement for response to distinctively colored and scented targets. In Exp II (8 Ss), an overshadowing experiment of conventional 2?×?2 design, color was overshadowed by odor, but odor was potentiated by color. Results are interpreted in terms of compound uniqueness and within-compound association, both of which were demonstrated in subsequent experiments with 28 Ss. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Team creativity as a function of the creativity of the members.

The relationship between team performance and individual abilities was studied with creative tasks. Data from 3 experiments are presented which indicate that the conclusions of other investigators, who used manual dexterity and cognitive tasks, can be applied to creative tasks. Up to about 70% of the variance in dyadic creativity may be predicted from the individual creative abilities of the 2 members. Multiple correlations for the prediction of group performance from the knowledge of the abilities of the members did not improve when the interaction between the ability scores was considered. In 1 experiment, in which the procedure permitted the determination of the relative "dominance" of the 2 Ss, the correlations of the abilities of the dominant Ss with group performance were higher than the correlations of the abilities of nondominant Ss with group performance. The study is a 1st step towards the determination of the relationship of group and individual performance in groups composed of more than 2 individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selective reading: Attention to the "unattended" lines.

Previous research on selective reading indicates that upon direct questioning Ss are usually unable to recall words that appear in irrelevant lines. In 3 experiments with male 6th graders (n = 24) and college freshmen (n = 31), a procedure was developed to examine the influence of the unattended lines on memory for the words in attended lines in selective reading. In each study, q of the Ss were given a set of selective reading passages to be read aloud. In the irrelevant lines of each passage were wrong answers to the questions which followed that story. The remainder of the Ss in each experiment read control passages without irrelevant lines. Results show that although Ss in the selective reading condition could not recall the words in the irrelevant lines, their answers to the questions following each passage were influenced by that "unattended" material. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disclosure of deception by debriefed subjects.

Investigated the disclosure of deception procedures by debriefed Ss in 2 experimental situations, risk taking and helping behavior, using deception procedures. A total of 581 undergraduates who had been debriefed and asked not to disclose any information about the experiments were contacted by telephone following the risk-taking experiment and in a face-to-face situation immediately after the helping behavior experiment. In the risk-taking experiment Ss who agreed to maintain confidentiality disclosed less frequently information when compared to the control Ss. In the helping behavior study, no difference was found in the frequency of disclosed information between the experimental and the control groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A structure-mapping model for word problems.

Tested predictions of a structure-mapping model for word problems in 4 experiments involving 132 undergraduates. In Exps I and II, Ss rated the potential usefulness of solutions for pairs of problems—mixture problems in Exp I and work problems in Exp II. The problems were either equivalent (same story, same procedure), similar (same story, different procedure), isomorphic (different story, same procedure), or unrelated (different story, different procedure). Ss in Exp III used an example solution for a work problem and a mixture problem to generate equations to related test problems that differed in their mappings from the example. In Exp IV, Ss matched concepts in the test problems to corresponding concepts in the examples to provide a direct measure of their ability to construct mappings across different problems. In Exps III and IV, Ss performed significantly better on isomorphic problems than on similar problems, and significantly better on work isomorphs than on mixture isomorphs. Results suggest that a structure-mapping model that emphasizes the transparency and structure of the mapping can be used to predict the usefulness of a solution. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)