Effect of processing parameters on shear bands in non-isothermal hot forging of Ti -6Al -4V

Abstract

The alloy system Ti- 6Al- 4V is the prominent Ti alloy system for aerospace and biomedical applications, as a result of its mechanical property balance and biocompatibility. Since the mechanical characterisation of Ti- 6Al- 4V is strongly sensitive to processing parameters there is relationship between processing variables, i.e. strain rate and temperature, microstructure, and properties under different loading conditions. Two phase (α + β) titanium alloys undergo flow instabilities and are susceptible to shear bands or regions of localised deformation crossing many grains during hot forging under non-isothermal conditions (dies and workpiece at different temperatures). Under such conditions shear bands can be generated even in materials without flow softening attributes. This occurs if the forging parameters lead to large amounts of heat transfer between the dies and the workpiece. This study investigates the occurrence of shear bands during non-isothermal, hot forging of Ti -6Al- 4V in order to evaluate the process parameters that generally lead to shear bands in conventional hot forging of metals. Upset compression tests on cylindrical specimens were conducted in a mechanical press and lateral side pressing tests on long, round bars were performed in either a mechanical press or a hydraulic press. The tests ranged from axisymmetric to plane strain compression. In upset specimens shear bands occurred at an angle of 45° to the compression axis and bands of intense deformation separated chill zones from the deforming bulk. Observation also demonstrated that the fracture might be owing to microvoids nucleated at weak points in sections of the shear surfaces. For plane strain deformation, shear bands were found to initiate along zero extension directions in a manner analogous to the formation and propagation of shear bands in isothermal hot forging. Although the shear band features at hot forging temperatures were similar to each other, there was a difference in the hardness and thickness of the shear bands depending on deformation mode, amount, and temperature.     

Research on the Characteristics of Hot Deformation in BT20 Titanium alloy and Its Optimum Spinning Temperature Range

Hot compression tests were conducted on a Gleeble-1500 simulator to investigate the hot deformation behavior of BT20 Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V) in the temperature range from 550 to 1000℃ at constant strain rate in the range of 0.01～1 s-1, and then the optimum spinning temperature range was determined. Moreover, tube spinning experiments were executed to verify the reasonability of the optimum temperature range. The results show that the flow stress declines gradually with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate. In α β phase region the dynamic recrystallization is the main softening mechanism and in β phase region the hot deformation softening is controlled by dynamic recovery. In α βphase region with reducing strain rate dynamic recrystallization is fully developed. The optimum temperature of hot spinning is 850～900℃ and that of warm spinning is 600～650℃.Meanwhile, at the temperature above 600℃ tubular workpieces of BT20 Ti alloy have been spun without surface cracks and microstructure inhomogeneity, which proves that the optimum spinning temperature range obtained through hot compression experiments is reasonable.     

Effect of sputtered TiAlCr coatings on oxidation and hot corrosion resistance of Ti-24Al-14Nb-3V

The effect of sputtered Ti-50Al-10Cr and Ti-50Al-20Cr coatings on both isothermal and cyclic oxidation resistance at 800 similar to 900 degreesC and hot corrosion resistance at 850 degreesC of Ti-24Al-14Nb-3V was investigated. Results indicated that Ti-24Al-14Nb-3V alloys exhibited poor oxidation resistance due to the formation of Al2O3+TiO2+AlNbO4 mixed scales in air at 800 similar to 900 degreesC and poor hot corrosion resistance due to the spallation of scales formed in Na2SO4+K2SO4 melts at 850 degreesC. Both Ti-50Al-10Cr and Ti-50Al-20Cr coatings remarkably improved the oxidation and hot corrosion resistance of Ti-24Al-14Nb-3V alloy.     

Ti-6Al-4V合金热压缩过程中的动态再结晶

在变形温度为870~960℃、应变速率为5×10^-4 s^-1~5×10^-2 s^-1的条件下对Ti-6Al-4V合金进行单道次等温压缩实验,测出其应力-应变曲线并建立KM模型、Poliak-Jonas模型和Avrami模型,较为系统地描述了这种合金动态再结晶过程中的流变应力、临界应变量、组织演变动力学等的特征。将动态再结晶组织的转变体积分数引入Prasad功率耗散率模型,得到了Ti-6Al-4V合金动态再结晶过程中能量的变化规律并结合微观组织表征揭示了这种合金的动态再结晶机理。结果表明：随着变形温度的提高和应变速率的降低,Ti-6Al-4V合金的动态再结晶临界应变量减小,组织转变的体积分数增大。发生完全动态再结晶时的功率耗散率大于0.34,形核机制为位错诱导的弓出形核机制。     

热压缩过程中2205双相不锈钢的组织演变和软化机制

在不同变形温度和应变速率条件下对2205双相不锈钢进行高温压缩实验,研究了变形温度、应变速率和变形量对其显微组织中铁素体和奥氏体两相的影响,分析了高温变形软化机制。结果表明：随着变形温度的提高这种钢的峰值应力及其对应的应变逐渐减小。随着变形温度从850℃提高到950℃,2205双相不锈钢显微组织中的铁素体向奥氏体的转变占主导地位;变形温度高于950℃时,随着变形温度的提高铁素体与奥氏体之间的强度水平之差逐渐减小,显微组织中的奥氏体向铁素体的转变占主导地位。在本文的热变形条件下2205双相不锈钢的显微组织中铁素体呈现出与奥氏体不同的软化机制,铁素体的软化机制为动态回复和动态再结晶,而奥氏体因层错能较低其软化只能通过有限程度的动态回复进行。     

Influences of processing parameters and heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated using selective laser melting

Selective laser melting (SLM) has provided an alternative to the conventional fabrication techniques for Ti-6Al-4V alloy parts because of its flexibility and ease in creating complex features. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of the process parameters and heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated using SLM. The influences of various process parameters on the relative density, tensile properties, impact toughness, and hardness of Ti-6Al-4V alloy parts were studied. By employing parameter optimization, a high-density high-strength Ti-6Al-4V alloy was fabricated by SLM. A relative density of 99.45%, a tensile strength of 1 188 MPa, and an elongation to failure of 9.5% were achieved for the SLM-fabricated Ti-6Al-4V alloy with optimized parameters. The effects of annealing and solution aging heat treatment on the mechanical properties, phase composition, and microstructure of the SLM-fabricated Ti-6Al-4V alloy were also studied. The ductility of the heat-treated Ti-6Al-4V alloy was improved. By applying a heat treatment at 850 ℃ for 2 h, followed by furnace cooling, the elongation to failure and impact toughness were found to be increased from 9.5% to 12.5%, and from 24.13 J/cm² to 47.51 J/cm², respectively.The full text can be downloaded at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40436-022-00389-y     

氢对Ti-6Al-4V合金室温压缩性能的影响

为了研究氢对Ti-6Al-4V合金室温压缩性能的影响,采用Zwick/Z100型材料试验机对置氢Ti-6Al-4V合金进行了压缩试验,并利用OM、XRD和TEM等材料分析方法对合金的微观组织进行了观察.研究表明:置氢前,Ti-6Al-4V合金由等轴的α相和β相组成,置氢后,出现马氏体组织和氢化物;随氢含量增加,马氏体和剩余β相数量增多;氢提高了Ti-6Al-4V合金的抗压强度和塑性等室温压缩性能,最大增幅分别为33.9%和56.3%;置氢Ti-6Al-4V合金抗压强度的提高主要归因于氢的固溶强化、马氏体相变强化和氢化物强化;塑性指标的提高主要是置氢合金中塑性β相数量的增多所致.     

Effect of the filament nature on fatigue crack growth in titanium based composites reinforced by boron,B(B4C) and SiC filaments

Crack propagation testing has been applied to synthetic metal matrix composites (MMC) in order to compare failure mechanisms in Ti-6Al-4V alloy reinforced by uncoated boron, B(B₄C) and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) SiC filaments. The impeding effect of the fibres leads to low crack growth rates, compared to those reported for the unreinforced Ti-6Al-4V alloy and to higher toughness despite the presence of the reinforcing brittle phases. After long isothermal exposures at 850° C, the MMC crack growth resistance is reduced mainly due to fibre degradation, fibre-matrix debonding and an increase in matrix brittleness. However, for short-time isothermal exposures (up to about 10 h for B/Ti-6Al-4V, 30 h for B (B₄C)/Ti-6Al-4V and 60 h for SiC/Ti-6Al-4V) the crack growth resistance is significantly increased. This improvement is related to the build up of an energy-dissipating mechanism by fibre microcracking in the vicinity of the crack tip. This damaging mechanism allowing matrix plastic deformation is already effective for boron and B(B₄C) in the as-fabricated state, but occurs only after 10 h of thermal exposure at 850° C in the case of SiC/Ti-6Al-4V composites.     

一种新型近β型Ti-5.5Mo-6V-7Cr-4Al-2Sn-1Fe合金热变形行为

采用Gleeble-3800型热模拟试验机对一种新型近β型Ti-5.5Mo-6V-7Cr-4Al-2Sn-1Fe(质量分数/%)钛合金进行等温恒应变速率压缩实验。变形温度范围为:655~855℃,应变速率范围为:0.001~10s^-1 ,最大真应变为0.8。根据实验数据,建立了该合金的高温流变应力模型,计算出热变形激活能约为255kJ/mol,并绘制出热加工图。结合热加工图与材料的显微组织分析可知,在高应变速率(1~10s^-1 )条件下变形时,在热加工图上表现为材料的功率耗散值(η)低,为失稳区域,易产生绝热剪切带与局部塑性流动、开裂等现象。在应变速率小于0.01s^-1 和相变点( T β)温度以下(655~755℃)进行热变形时,组织变化主要以动态回复为主;在应变速率小于0.01s^-1 和 T β以上(755~855℃)进行热变形时,组织发生动态再结晶,且随着温度的升高,新产生的再结晶晶粒逐渐长大。在相变点附近(755~770℃),变形速率为0.001~0.003s^-1 区域内变形时,功率耗散值达到最大值,组织发生动态再结晶,该区域为合金热变形的“安全区”。     

Microtwin formation in the α phase of duplex titanium alloys affected by strain rate

The effect of tensile strain rate on deformation microstructure was investigated in Ti-6-4 (Ti-6Al-4V) and SP700 (Ti-4.5Al-3V-2Mo-2Fe) of the duplex titanium alloys. Below a strain rate of 10⁻² s⁻¹, Ti-6-4 alloy had a higher ultimate tensile strength than SP700 alloy. However, the yield strength of SP700 was consistently greater than Ti-6-4 at different strain rates. The ductility of SP700 alloy associated with twin formation (especially at the slow strain rate of 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹), always exceeded that of Ti-6-4 alloy at different strain rates. It is caused by a large quantity of deformation twins took place in the α phase of SP700 due to the lower stacking fault energy by the β stabilizer of molybdenum alloying. In addition, the local deformation more was imposed on the α grains from the surrounding β-rich grains by redistributing strain as the strain rate decreased in SP700 duplex alloy.     

Efficiency of Power Dissipation and Instability Criterion for Processing Maps in Hot Forming

The processing maps are a superimposition of iso-efficiency contour map and flow instability map, which are used to design hot working processing conditions in a wide variety of materials. In order to construct the processing maps, the efficiency of power dissipation and an instability criterion taking into account the contribution of strain and microstructure evolution are proposed based on a set of microstructure-based viscoplastic constitutive equations. In viscoplastic constitutive equations, the grain size of matrix phase and the dislocation density are taken as internal state variables. And, the material constants in present equations can be identified by a genetic algorithm (GA)-based objective optimization technique. Isothermal compression of Ti-6Al-4V alloy is conducted on a Thermecmaster-Z simulator with different deformation temperatures, strain rates and height reductions so as to establish the processing maps by using the present model. The primary a grain size is measured at an OLYMPUS PMG3 microscope with the quantitative metallography image analysis software. Based on the experimental results, the processing maps of Ti-6Al-4V alloy are constructed at different strains. The processing maps show that the instability domains and the efficiency of power dissipation vary as the strain increases. The comparison between the processing maps of present study and that based on Prasad's theory shows that the present processing maps can more efficiently describe the deformation behavior and provide more appropriately physical interpretation and optimize processing conditions accurately.     

Dynamic strength and failure behavior of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V for a variation of heat treatments

In our study, samples of Ti-6Al-4V were subjected to modifications of an aging treatment where temperatures for solution annealing and final aging as well as the cooling rate were varied. The titanium alloy was annealed above and below the β-transus temperature followed by cooling in a vacuum furnace or by water quenching. Additionally, the final annealing temperature was varied. Compression tests under quasistatic and dynamic loading rates were performed to determine the flow stress and strain hardening behavior. Furthermore, instrumented Charpy impact tests on U-notch specimen were performed at room temperature to monitor the load-time response of deformation and fracturing. The obtained high rate mechanical properties are discussed and correlated with the present microstructure. Our results reveal a very strong effect of the microstructure on the material behavior and will assist to choose the appropriate heat treatment technology, especially if impact loaded or safety structures have to be considered.     

Interface contribution to the SiC-titanium and SiC-aluminium tensile strength prediction

Fragmentation tests of single SiC filaments embedded in an aluminium (1050 and 5083 alloys) or a titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) matrix have been analysed in an effort to obtain the interface contribution in terms that could be incorporated into a tensile fracture model for unidirectional composites. Depending on the matrix, two regimes of interfacial stress transfer can be distinguished within the whole range of tested temperatures. For the SCS2/5083 system, plastic deformation of the alloy limits the stress transfer, and the interface contribution thus finds its expression in the shear stress of the matrix. for the SCS6/Ti-6Al-4V system, friction is the leading process and the interface contribution strongly depends on the stress state around the fibre. Assuming a temperature dependent compressive radial stress up to 925C, an effective transfer shear stress may be easily calculated for unidirectional SCS6/Ti-6Al-4V composites.     

Processing Maps for Hot Working Behavior of a PM TiAl Alloy

The hot deformation behavior of a Ti-47Al-2Cr-2Nb-0.2W-0.15B(at.%) titanium aluminide alloy fabricated by pre-alloyed powder metallurgy has been investigated by using the hot compression tests in the temperature range from 950 C to 1300 C and at the strain rates between 10 3 s 1 and 10 s 1.The processing maps have been established to evaluate the optimum hot processing conditions and reveal the instability regions.It is found that the flow stress of the investigated alloy is a strong function of the temperature and the strain rate.The investigated alloy has the optimum hot-working condition at 950 C and 10 3 s 1,since the material undergoes dynamic recrystallization to produce a fine-grained microstructure.At 1250 C and 10 3 s 1,the alloy exhibits superplastic deformation.At 1300 C and 10 1 s 1,the cyclic dynamic recrystallization with high temperature grain coarsening takes place.The material undergoes flow instabilities at lower temperatures and higher strain rates,as predicted by the instability criterion.The processing maps demonstrate that the strain significantly affected the instability regions.The manifestations of the instabilities have been observed in the form of microvoids,wedge cracks,and surface fractures.     

Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金热塑性流变行为的变参数Arrhenius模型表征

在Gleeble-1500热模拟试验机上进行多组热压缩试验,获得Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金在温度1073～1323K、应变速率0.01～10s-1下的真应力-应变数据,基于此分析工艺参数对流变应力演变的影响规律,识别应力-应变曲线的动态再结晶型和动态回复型软化特征及其出现时机。引入不含应变影响的传统Arrhenius型本构方程,将其进一步拓展使用,在不同应变量条件下,通过多元线性回归计算与多项式拟合,求解获得Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金形变表观激活能Q、材料常数n、α及结构因子A等参量对应变的响应规律,从而建立Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金含应变、温度及应变速率影响的变参数流变应力本构方程。模型预测值与实验值对比显示最大相对误差为4.55%,最大平均误差为2.19%。     

基于气体捕捉法的泡沫Ti-6Al-4V等温发泡规律研究

为了确定气体捕捉法制备泡沫Ti-6Al-4V等温发泡过程中孔隙率和微观孔洞的变化规律,在不同发泡温度及发泡时间下制备了泡沫Ti-6Al-4V.运用阿基米德原理对泡沫Ti-6Al-4V的孔隙率进行测量,通过OM和SEM对其微观特征进行观察.研究表明:泡沫Ti-6Al-4V的孔隙率及孔径均随等温发泡温度升高而增加;但当发泡温度大于950℃时,孔隙率和孔径均减小,且孔洞形态由球形变成多边形,这是由于基体内生成大尺寸β相造成的.增加发泡时间能以促进孔洞长大的方式提高泡沫Ti-6Al-4V的孔隙率,球形孔洞数量随着发泡时间的增加逐渐增多.经950℃/10 h发泡得到了孔隙率34.2%、孔径平均值156μm、孔洞为球形且分布弥散的泡沫Ti-6Al-4V.     

Thermo-mechanical sheet metal forming of aero engine components in Ti-6Al-4V – PART 1: Material characterisation

Ti-6Al-4V is one of the most frequently used titanium alloy in aerospace applications such as for load carrying engine structures, due to their high strength to weight ratio in combination with favourable creep resistance at moderate operating temperatures. In the virtual development process of designing suitable thermo-mechanical forming processes for titanium sheet metal components in aero engine applications numerical finite element (FE) simulations are desirable to perform. The benefit is related to the ability of securing forming concepts with respect to shape deviation, thinning and strain localisation. The reliability of the numerical simulations depends on both models and methods used as well as on the accuracy and applicability of the material input data. The material model and related property data need to be consistent with the conditions of the material in the studied thermo-mechanical forming process. In the present work a set of material tests are performed on Ti-6Al-4V at temperatures ranging from room temperature up to 560°C. The purpose is to study the mechanical properties of the specific batch of alloy but foremost to identify necessary material model requirements and generate experimental reference data for model calibration in order to perform FE-analyses of sheet metal forming at elevated temperatures in Ti-6Al-4V.     

Notch effects on high-cycle fatigue properties of Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy at cryogenic temperatures

Notch effects on the high-cycle fatigue properties of the forged Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy at cryogenic temperatures were investigated. Also, the high-cycle fatigue data were compared with the rolled Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI alloy. The one million cycles fatigue strength (FS) of the smooth specimen for the forged Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy increased with a decrease of test temperature. However, the FS of each notched specimen at 4 K were lower than those at 77 K. On the other hand, the FS of the smooth and the notched specimens for the forged Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy at 4 K were lower than those for the rolled Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI alloy. This is considered to be the early initiation of the fatigue crack in the forged Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy compares with the forged Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI.     

Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金热变形激活动态再结晶的临界条件识别及表征

热压缩实验获得Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V合金在温度1073～1323K,应变速率0.01～10s-1条件下的真应力-应变曲线,以此作为识别及表征动态再结晶临界条件的底层数据。对比分析流变应力曲线发现高温、低应变速率下动态回复型软化态势显著;低温、高应变速率下动态再结晶型软化态势显著。引入材料加工硬化率θ,结合θ-σ曲线拐点判据识别了流变应力曲线隐含表征激活动态再结晶的特征参量:临界应变、临界应力。采用含动态再结晶激活能Q的Arrhenius方程求得α、β、n1、n2等材料常数并获得该合金动态再结晶激活能对应变速率及温度的响应图。进一步引入表征动态再结晶临界条件的临界应变模型,获得了临界应变与各热力参数之间的数学关系,验证表明该临界模型预测精度最大为12.9%。     

Diffusion bonding of Ti-6Al-4V alloy at low temperature: metallurgical aspects

The diffusion bonding of the Ti-Al-4V alloy at low temperature (850°C) has been studied. The principal objective of this investigation was the development of a diffusion bonding procedure suitable for Ti-6Al-4V alloy and capable of being used as part of a superplastic forming/diffusion bonding process. It was found that high-quality joints can be obtained by bonding at 850°C, with pressures of 4 MPa and times in the range 90–120 min. Mechanical properties of the joints were determined using cylindrical and plane test pieces. Tensile, shear and peeling tests were used to determine the strength of the joints. On bonding with the above conditions, the parent alloy strength was reached. Little reduction in these values was measured because the heat treatment was applied during bonding. A metallographic study by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy was performed to determinate the influence of the previous parameters on the microstructural changes that occur in the joint. Grain growth kinetics and ratio of bonding area were also studied. The results shows that a new method of diffusion bonding for Ti-6Al-4V alloy has been developed. This method can be carried out using lower bonding temperatures than in conventional processes.