Dietary exposure to aflatoxin from maize and groundnut in young children from Benin and Togo, West Africa

Aflatoxins are a family of fungal toxins that are carcinogenic to man and cause immunosuppression, cancer and growth reduction in animals. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 480 children (age 9 months to 5 years) across 4 agro-ecological zones (SS, NGS, SGS and CS) in Benin and Togo to identify the effect of aflatoxin exposure on child growth and assess the pattern of exposure. Prior reports on this study [Gong, Y.Y.,Cardwell, K., Hounsa, A., Egal, S., Turner, Hall, A.J., Wild, C.P., 2002. Dietary aflatoxin exposure and impaired growth in young children from Benin and Togo: cross sectional study. British Medical Journal 325, 20-21, Gong, Y.Y., Egal, S., Hounsa, A., Turner, P.C., Hall, A.J., Cardwell, K., Wild, C.P., 2003. Determinants of aflatoxin exposure in young children from Benin and Togo, West Africa: the critical role of weaning and weaning foods. International Journal of Epidemiology, 32, 556-562] showed that aflatoxin exposure among these children is widespread (99%) and that growth faltering is associated with high blood aflatoxin-albumin adducts (AF-alb adducts), a measure of recent past exposure. The present report demonstrates that consumption of maize is an important source of aflatoxin exposure for the survey population. Higher AF-alb adducts were correlated with higher A. flavus (CFU) infestation of maize (p=0.006), higher aflatoxin contamination (ppb) of maize (p<0.0001) and higher consumption frequencies of maize (p=0.053). The likelihood of aflatoxin exposure from maize was particularly high in agro-ecological zones where the frequency of maize consumption (SGS and CS), the presence of aflatoxin in maize (SGS) or the presence of A. flavus on maize (NGS and SGS) was relatively high. Socio-economic background did not affect the presence of A. flavus and aflatoxin in maize, but better maternal education was associated with lower frequencies of maize consumption among children from the northernmost agro-ecological zone (SS) (p=0.001). The impact of groundnut consumption on aflatoxin exposure was limited in this population. High AF-alb adduct levels were correlated with high prevalence of A. flavus and aflatoxin in groundnut, but significance was weak after adjustment for weaning status, agro-ecological zone and maternal socio-economic status (resp. p=0.091 and p=0.083). Ingestion of A. flavus and aflatoxin was high in certain agro-ecological zones (SS and SGS) and among the higher socio-economic strata due to higher frequencies of groundnut consumption. Contamination of groundnuts was similar across socio-economic and agro-ecological boundaries. In conclusion, dietary exposure to aflatoxin from groundnut was less than from maize in young children from Benin and Togo. Intervention strategies that aim to reduce dietary exposure in this population need to focus on maize consumption in particular, but they should not ignore consumption of groundnuts.     

Urinary aflatoxin exposure monitoring in rural and semi-urban populations in Ogun state,Nigeria

Aflatoxins are a major class of fungal toxins that have food safety importance due to their economic and health impacts. This pilot aflatoxin exposure biomonitoring study on 84 individuals was conducted in a rural (Ilumafon) and a semi-urban community (Ilishan Remo) of Ogun state, Nigeria, to compare aflatoxin exposures among the two population cohorts. First morning urine samples were obtained from the participants, and the urinary aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) levels were measured by a quantitative Helica Biosystems Inc. ELISA kit assay. About 99% (83 out of 84) of the urine samples had detectable AFM₁ levels in the range of 0.06 to 0.51 ng mL^?1 (median: 0.27 ng mL^?1). The mean urinary AFM₁ levels were significantly (p = 0.001) higher in the semi-urban population (0.31 ± 0.09 ng mL^?1) compared to the rural population (0.24 ± 0.07 ng mL^?1). There were, however, no significant differences in mean urinary AFM₁ levels of males and females, and among children, adolescents and adults. This study indicates high aflatoxin exposure to the extent of public health concerns in the studied populations. Thus, more efforts are required for aflatoxin exposure monitoring and control in high-risk regions.     

广西玉林市小作坊花生油中黄曲霉毒素B1膳食暴露及风险评估北大核心CSCD

对广西玉林市居民通过小作坊花生油摄入黄曲霉毒素B;(AFB;)进行膳食暴露及风险评估,并提出要求。按不同区域,不同性别,城市、农村,年龄/城乡/性别进行分组,结合广西居民膳食B模式数据,采用点评估模型计算暴露量,采用BMDL;为400 ng/(kg·d)计算暴露限值(MOE)。结果发现,广西玉林市小作坊花生油AFB;检出率为59%,超标率为18.6%,含量范围为0.05~243.00μg/kg,平均含量为16.91μg/kg,极显著高于预包装花生油的平均含量(P<0.01)。全市小作坊花生油的AFB;平均暴露量为7.76 ng/(kg·d),MOE为52,各组平均日膳食暴露MOE均介于200~25之间。以各组MOE进行AFB;暴露风险评估,发现6个县市区域中XY(MOE 27)、BL(MOE 37)风险最高,农村(MOE 46)风险高于城市(MOE 73),女性(MOE 49)风险高于男性(MOE 55),6~11岁人群(MOE 41~25)风险>12~14岁人群风险(MOE 70~37)>15岁以上人群风险(MOE 85~44)。广西玉林市居民通过小作坊花生油摄入AFB;潜在健康风险较高,应该引起较高的公共卫生关注度。     

Human aflatoxin exposure in Kenya, 2007: a cross-sectional study

Aflatoxins contaminate approximately 25% of agricultural products worldwide. They can cause liver failure and liver cancer. Kenya has experienced multiple aflatoxicosis outbreaks in recent years, often resulting in fatalities. However, the full extent of aflatoxin exposure in Kenya has been unknown. Our objective was to quantify aflatoxin exposure across Kenya. We analysed aflatoxin levels in serum specimens from the 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey – a nationally representative, cross-sectional serosurvey. KAIS collected 15,853 blood specimens. Of the 3180 human immunodeficiency virus-negative specimens with ≥1 mL sera, we randomly selected 600 specimens stratified by province and sex. We analysed serum specimens for aflatoxin albumin adducts by using isotope dilution MS/MS to quantify aflatoxin B1-lysine, and normalised with serum albumin. Aflatoxin concentrations were then compared by demographic, socioeconomic and geographic characteristics. We detected serum aflatoxin B1-lysine in 78% of serum specimens (range = <LOD–211 pg/mg albumin, median = 1.78 pg/mg albumin). Aflatoxin exposure did not vary by sex, age group, marital status, religion or socioeconomic characteristics. Aflatoxin exposure varied by province (p < 0.05); it was highest in Eastern (median = 7.87 pg/mg albumin) and Coast (median = 3.70 pg/mg albumin) provinces and lowest in Nyanza (median = <LOD) and Rift Valley (median = 0.70 pg/mg albumin) provinces. Our findings suggest that aflatoxin exposure is a public health problem throughout Kenya, and it could be substantially impacting human health. Wide-scale, evidence-based interventions are urgently needed to decrease exposure and subsequent health effects.     

重庆市居民膳食中铬暴露水平及其健康风险评估

目的 评估重庆市居民膳食中铬暴露水平及潜在的健康风险。方法 利用2018—2021年重庆市9类共2 780份食品中铬含量监测数据,结合中国健康与营养调查项目2018年重庆市膳食调查数据（3 d 24 h膳食回顾法）,采用蒙特卡罗模拟估计重庆市居民膳食中铬暴露水平并评估其健康风险。结果 重庆市各类食物中铬平均含量范围为0.013 9~0.126 3 mg/kg,总体检出率为40.6%。铬平均含量以水产品及其制品最高,其次是特殊膳食用食品、叶菜类蔬菜和大米。重庆市居民膳食中铬每日平均暴露量范围为0.683~2.117 μg/kg·BW,高食物量消费人群的膳食暴露水平（P95）范围为1.165~3.597 μg/kg·BW。各年龄组人群的铬每日平均暴露量随年龄增加有降低的趋势,1~6岁人群的铬每日平均暴露量最高,60岁以上人群最低;男性铬平均暴露量高于女性;城市地区人群的铬平均暴露量高于农村地区。谷物及其制品对重庆市居民膳食中铬暴露的贡献率最高,达39.31%~49.13%,其次为蔬菜、肉及肉制品。各年龄、性别、地区组人群膳食中铬每日平均暴露量和P95暴露量占每日耐受摄入量（TDI）的比例均低于1。结论 重庆市居民膳食中铬暴露的健康风险较低,谷物及其制品、蔬菜、肉及肉制品是膳食中铬摄入的主要来源。     

Dietary exposure to trace elements and health risk assessment in the region of Valencia,Spain: a total diet study

ABSTRACT

Dietary exposure of the Valencian region population to lead, cadmium, inorganic arsenic (iAs), chromium, copper, tin and methylmercury (meHg) was assessed in a total diet study carried out in the region of Valencia in 2010–11. A total of 8100 food samples were collected and analysed. Occurrence data were combined with consumption data to estimate dietary exposure in adults (> 15 years of age) and young children (6–15 years of age). The estimated intake was calculated by a probabilistic approach. Average intake levels (optimistic scenario) for lead, iAs, chromium and tin were 0.21, 0.08, 1.79 and 1.87 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 respectively; for Cd and meHg average intake levels were 0.77 and 0.54 µg kg^–1 bw week^?1, respectively, and for Cu, 1.60 mg day^?1. In terms of risk characterisation, the results showed that 2.84% of the adult population may exceed the BMDL₁₀ (benchmark dose lower confidence limit) established for Pb, which is linked to renal effects; whereas 28.01% of the young children population may exceed the BMDL₀₁ related to neurodevelopment effects. In addition, 8.47% of the adult population and 12.32% of young children exceeded the meHg tolerable weekly intake (TWI).     

Enterobacter sakazakii: a coliform of increased concern to infant health

The first cases of neonatal meningitis believed to have been caused by Enterobacter sakazakii were reported in 1961. Prompted by several subsequent outbreaks of E. sakazakii infections in neonates and an increasing number of neonates in intensive care units being fed rehydrated powdered infant formula, considered to be a source of the pathogen, public health authorities and researchers are exploring ways to eliminate the bacterium or control its growth in dry infant formula, processing environments and formula preparation areas in hospitals. Reviewed here are advances in taxonomy and classification of E. sakazakii, methods of detecting, isolating and typing the bacterium, antibiotic resistance, clinical etiology and pathogenicity. Outbreaks of E. sakazakii infections in neonates and adults are summarized. Reports on the presence of E. sakazakii in clinical settings, the environment and foods and food processing facilities are reviewed. Tolerance of the pathogen to environmental stresses, its behavior in powdered and rehydrated infant formulae and hazard analysis and risk management are discussed. Research needs are presented.     

广西梧州市土榨花生油中黄曲霉毒素B1膳食暴露风险评估

为了解梧州市居民通过小作坊土榨花生油摄入黄曲霉毒素B1（AFB1）的膳食暴露风险,随机抽取梧州市3区、4县小作坊生产散装土榨花生油共496份,检测其AFB1含量,应用点评估方法评估梧州市居民的土榨花生油AFB1膳食暴露风险。结果表明：496份土榨花生油中,AFB1检出率为40.3%,含量在0.12~109.00 μg/kg之间,平均含量为3.63 μg/kg,超标率为4.64%,居民平均AFB1膳食暴露量为1.67 ng/(kg·d),平均暴露限值(MOE)为240;男性居民平均AFB1膳食暴露量低于女性居民,城市居民低于农村居民,AFB1对女性居民造成的风险高于男性居民,对农村居民造成的风险高于城市居民。风险评估结果表明,梧州市居民通过土榨花生油摄入AFB1潜在风险较高。     

Dietary exposure to lead of adults in Shenzhen city,China

Lead, a ubiquitous heavy metal, can be found in the environment and food. The present study is the first to estimate the lead dietary exposure of Shenzhen adults (≥ 20 years old) in various age–gender subgroups, and to assess the associated health risk. Food samples that represented the Shenzhen people’s dietary pattern were collected and prepared for analysis. Lead was determined in 13 food groups using 276 individual cooked samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the local food consumption data of Shenzhen adults. The mean and 95th percentile lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were 0.59–0.73 and 0.75–0.94 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. In all food groups, the highest lead exposure was from ‘Eggs and their products’ (42.4–51.6% of the total exposure); preserved eggs being the main contributor. The other major contributors to lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were ‘Fish and seafood, and their products’ (14.3–16.7% of the total exposure) and ‘Vegetables and their products’ (15.5–16.2% of the total exposure). The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was used for the risk assessment of lead, and the results showed that the risk was considered to be low in all age–gender groups for Shenzhen adults. However, having considered a number of toxic effects of lead, it is suggested that more efforts should be made to reduce the lead levels in foodstuff for Shenzhen adults.     

Nicotine addiction through a neurogenomic prism: ethics, public health, and smoking.

Studies are under way to examine the neurogenetic factors contributing to smoking behaviors. The combined approaches of genomics, molecular biology, neuroscience, and pharmacology are expected to fuel developments in pharmacogenetics, to create new genetic tests, and ultimately to provide the basis for innovative strategies for smoking cessation and prevention. The emergence of a neurogenomic understanding of nicotine addiction is likely to induce fundamental changes in popular, clinical, and public health views of smoking, which could significantly shape existing practices and policies to reduce tobacco use. Still a nascent area of research, nicotine addiction provides an excellent case study through which to anticipate key ethical and policy issues in both behavioral genetics and the neurogenomics of addictive behaviors.     

广东小作坊生产花生油中黄曲霉毒素B1膳食暴露及风险评估

对广东居民通过小作坊花生油对黄曲霉毒素B_1的膳食暴露及其产生的健康风险进行评价。采用点评估模型对广东不同年龄人群通过花生油对黄曲霉毒素B_1的膳食暴露情况进行评估,按照联合国粮农组织和世界卫生组织食品添加剂联合专家委员会推荐的方法对黄曲霉毒素B_1引发的肝癌风险进行评价。结果表明:2017年广东地区小作坊花生油黄曲霉毒素B_1超标率11. 8%,检出率56. 9%;各年龄组高消费水平暴露量规律为7～14岁 15～50岁 50岁以上 2～6岁,15～50岁、50岁以上、2～6岁3个年龄段女性高消费水平暴露量大于男性;高消费人群由于花生油中黄曲霉毒素B1的膳食暴露引发肝癌的风险为7～14岁男性少年儿童危险度最大,高消费水平肝癌贡献率最高,达28. 9%。高消费人群花生油中黄曲霉毒素B_1引发肝癌的风险相对较高,应对全省小作坊花生油黄曲霉毒素污染予以足够的重视。     

基于暴露限值法与数学模型法的某市居民食用植物油中黄曲霉毒素B1的膳食暴露风险评估

目的 运用暴露限值法与数学模型法2种不同的方法, 评估某市居民从食用植物油中摄入黄曲霉毒素B1(aflatoxin B1, AFB1)的膳食风险, 并提出建议。方法 采用分层随机法, 抽取广东省某市生产及流通领域中食用植物油, 分别用酶联免疫吸附测定法(enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA)和高效液相色谱-柱后衍生法(high performance liquid chromatography, HPLC)检测不同年份样品的AFB1含量, 结合该市居民膳食消费量计算食用油中AFB1的暴露水平, 运用暴露限值(margin of exposure, MOE)法与数学模型法进行膳食风险评估。结果 共采集的341份食用植物油, AFB1检出率为66.0%; 花生油样品检出率和含量均高于其余品种(P<0.05); 散装样品检出率和含量明显高于定型包装样品(P<0.05)。超市和餐饮单位的样品AFB1含量较其它场所低(P<0.05); 不同地区的样品检出率和含量差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。该市居民食用油AFB1暴露水平为3.12 ng/kg bw/d, MOE值为80, 对于肝癌发病率的贡献为0.1248/10万人。结论 该市居民食用植物油AFB1膳食暴露水平和致肝癌发病的贡献较低, 但仍应引起足够和持续的公共卫生关注, 尤其对于散装花生油应优先采取风险管理措施, 加大监管力度, 并做好人群健康饮食习惯指导。     

Dietary exposure to lead, cadmium, mercury and radionuclides of an adult urban population in Lebanon: a total diet study approach.

Human exposure to toxic chemicals is suspected of being responsible for a wide range of human health disorders. This study is the first in Lebanon to evaluate the dietary exposure of an adult urban population to three heavy metals (lead, cadmium and mercury) and to radionuclides. Exposure assessment was performed by means of the total diet study approach as recommended by the Word Health Organization. Five 'total diets' were collected during 2003-04. Average and maximal consumer exposure estimates to heavy metals were calculated and compared with appropriate reference values and with intakes reported from other countries. The average dietary intakes of lead, cadmium and mercury represented 7, 17 and 5.6%, respectively, of the appropriate provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWI). The mean dietary intake of methylmercury represented 17.5% of the appropriate PTWI. Cs-134 and I-131 were not detected in any of the food samples. Traces of Cs-137 were only found in five food samples. The exposure assessment conducted places Lebanon among countries least exposed to heavy metals through the diet and it highlights the safety of the food supply from radioactive contamination.     

Public information campaign on aflatoxin contamination of maize grains in market stores in Benin, Ghana and Togo

Rotary International with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) conducted an information campaign from 2000 to 2004 to increase public awareness of aflatoxin in Benin, Ghana and Togo. Key informant interviews with 2416 respondents showed poor baseline knowledge of aflatoxin and its health risks. The campaign included monitoring of aflatoxin contamination in maize grains from market stores in 38 cities and towns. Aflatoxin concentration in contaminated samples ranged from 24 to 117.5 ng g^-1 in Benin, from 0.4 to 490.6 ng g^-1 in Ghana, and from 0.7 to 108.8 ng g^-1 in Togo. The campaign significantly increased public awareness that populations were exposed to high levels of aflatoxin. The number of maize traders who were informed about the toxin increased 10.3 and 3.2 times in Togo and Benin, respectively; at least 33% more traders believed the information in each of Benin and Togo; 11.4 and 28.4% more consumers sorted out and discarded bad grains in Benin and Ghana, respectively. This paper concludes that sustained public education can help reduce aflatoxin contamination.     

Dietary exposure to short-chain chlorinated paraffins has increased in Beijing, China

Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in biota and are under review by the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants. SCCP levels were measured semiquantitatively in pooled 24 h food composite samples from Chinese (n = 10), Korean (n = 10), and Japanese (n = 40) adults in the 1990 s and 2007-2009. In Japan, SCCPs were detected in 14 of 20 pooled samples in the 1990 s and 13 of 20 pooled samples in 2009. Between these two time points, the geometric mean (GM) of the dietary intake of total SCCPs per body weight was comparable in Japan (54 ng kg-bw(-1) day(-1) in the 1990 s and 54 ng kg-bw(-1) day(-1) in the 2000s). In Beijing, SCCP levels were elevated by 2 orders of magnitude from 1993 to 2009 (GM: 620 ng kg-bw(-1) day(-1) in 2009). The 95th percentile estimate of the dietary intake was 1200 ng kg-bw(-1) day(-1) (>1% of tolerable daily intake). In Seoul, no samples in 1994 contained detectable SCCP levels and only one sample in 2007 showed trace levels of SCCPs. Preliminary evidence on the significant increase in SCCP exposure in Beijing in 2009 warrants urgent investigations to refine dietary intake estimates by targeting food types and source identification.     

Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: A review

Innovative sorption strategies for the detoxification of aflatoxins have been developed. NovaSil clay (NS) has been shown to prevent aflatoxicosis in a variety of animals when included in their diet. Results have shown that NS clay binds aflatoxins with high affinity and high capacity in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in a notable reduction in the bioavailability of these toxins without interfering with the utilization of vitamins and other micronutrients. This strategy is being evaluated as a potential remedy for acute aflatoxicosis, and as a sustainable human intervention for aflatoxins via the diet. Phase I and II clinical trials confirmed the apparent safety of NS for further study in humans. A recent study in Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis has indicated that NS (at a dose level of 0.25%) is effective in decreasing biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure and does not interfere with the levels of serum vitamins A and E, and iron and zinc. In summary, enterosorption strategies/therapies based on NS clay are promising for the management of aflatoxins and as a sustainable public health intervention. The NS clay remedy is novel, inexpensive and easily disseminated. Based on the present research, aflatoxin sequestering clays should be rigorously evaluated in vitro and in vivo, and should meet the following criteria: (1) favourable thermodynamic characteristics of mycotoxin sorption, (2) tolerable levels of priority metals, dioxins/furans and other hazardous contaminants, (3) safety and efficacy in multiple animal species, (4) safety and efficacy in long-term studies, and (5) negligible interactions with vitamins, iron and zinc and other micronutrients.