Does cognitive load moderate the seductive details effect? A multimedia study

Several studies have shown that adding seductive details to instructional materials has a detrimental effect on learning. However, other studies have shown non-significant findings. The present study uses cognitive load theory as a theoretical framework to explain these controversial results in seductive details research. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design we asked a group of high-school students (N = 100) to learn about biology with a multimedia environment that manipulated the presence of seductive details (with vs. without) and the modality of the verbal information (high load, on-screen text vs. low load, narration). The findings showed that students’ learning performance was significantly higher when seductive details were presented under the low load condition (narration) as compared to all other conditions. The theoretical implications for understanding the effects of non-redundant and interesting, but irrelevant learning material are discussed and future research directions are presented.     

Cognitive load and science text comprehension: Effects of drawing and mentally imagining text content

One hundred and eleven 10th graders read an expository science text on the dipole character of water molecules (ca. 1600 words). Reading instruction was varied according to a 2 × 2 experimental design with factors ‘drawing pictures of text content on paper’ (yes, no) and ‘mentally imagining text content while reading’ (yes, no). The results indicate that drawing pictures, mediated through increased cognitive load, decreased text comprehension and, thus, learning (d = −0.37), whereas mental imagery, although decreasing cognitive load, increased comprehension only when students did not have to draw pictures simultaneously (d = 0.72). No evidence was found that the effects were moderated by domain-specific prior knowledge, verbal ability, or spatial ability. The results are in line with cognitive theories of multimedia learning, self-regulated learning, and mental imagery as well as conceptions of science learning that focus on promoting mental model construction by actively visualizing the content to be learned. Constructing mental images seems to reduce cognitive load and to increase comprehension and learning outcome when the mental visualization processes are not disturbed by externally drawing pictures on paper, whereas drawing pictures seems to increase cognitive load resulting in reduced comprehension and learning outcome.     

Dynamic scaffolding of socially regulated learning in a computer-based learning environment

The aim of this study is to test the effects of dynamically scaffolding social regulation of middle school students working in a computer-based learning environment. Dyads in the scaffolding condition (N = 56) are supported with computer-generated scaffolds and students in the control condition (N = 54) do not receive scaffolds. The scaffolds are dynamically adjusted to dyads’ progress with an attention management system. The scaffolds support two aspects of socially regulated learning namely the metacognitive and cognitive activities. We analyzed the effects of dynamic scaffolding on dyads’ performance, their perception of the learning environment and students' knowledge acquisition. We found that scaffolding had a positive effect on the dyads’ learning performance, but did not affect students’ domain knowledge. The repeated measurements of perception of the learning environment showed that dyads in the experimental condition were more positive about their teachers and their collaborators than students in the control condition. With respect to their perception of the software and the 3D embodied agent delivering the scaffolds, we found a stronger decrease of appreciation over time in the scaffolding condition compared to the control condition.     

Does instructor's image size in video lectures affect learning outcomes?

One of the most commonly used forms of video lectures is a combination of an instructor's image and accompanying lecture slides as a picture‐in‐picture. As the image size of the instructor varies significantly across video lectures, and so do the learning outcomes associated with this technology, the influence of the instructor's image size should be evaluated. This study tested the effect of image size of the instructor on learners' experience of social presence, cognitive load, learning performance and satisfaction. In the study, 87 Chinese undergraduates were randomly assigned to view a video lecture with a small image of the instructor, with a medium image size of the instructor or with a large image of the instructor. The results of analyses of variances and analysis of covariance suggested that learners perceived the same level of social presence and cognitive load across video lectures with different image sizes of the instructor; learners who watched the video lecture with the small image of the instructor learned better than those who watched the video lectures with the medium and the large images of the instructors. Furthermore, learners who watched the video lecture with the small image and medium image of the instructor experienced more learning satisfaction. The findings highlight the importance of image size of the instructor in video lecture learning.     

Improving literacy and metacognition with electronic portfolios: Teaching and learning with ePEARL

Can an electronic portfolio that is both a multimedia container for student work and a tool to support key learning processes have a positive impact on the literacy practices and self-regulated learning skills of students? This article presents the findings of a yearlong study conducted in three Canadian provinces during the 2007–2008 school year initially involving 32 teachers and 388 students. Due to varying levels of implementation our final data set included 14 teachers and 296 students. Using a non-equivalent pre-test/post-test design, we found that grade 4–6 students who were in classrooms where the teacher provided regular and appropriate use of the electronic portfolio tool ePEARL (i.e., medium–high implementation condition, n = 7 classrooms and 121 students), compared to control students (n = 7 classrooms and 175 students) who did not use ePEARL, showed significant improvements (p < .05) in their writing skills on a standardized literacy measure (i.e., the constructed response subtest of the Canadian Achievement Test-4th ed.) and certain metacognitive skills measured via student self-report. The results of this study indicate that teaching with ePEARL has positive impacts on students’ literacy and self-regulated learning skills when the tool is used regularly and integrated into classroom instruction.     

Learning science via animated movies: Its effect on students’ thinking and motivation

Some researchers claim that animations may hinder students’ meaningful learning or evoke misunderstandings. In order to examine these assertions, our study investigated the effect of animated movies on students’ learning outcomes and motivation to learn. Applying the quantitative methodology, two pre- and post-questionnaires were administered: Science thinking skills and Motivation to learn science. Students’ overall achievement in science was examined by their report card scores. The research population (N = 1335) was divided into experimental (N = 926) and control (N = 409) groups from 11 elementary schools. Findings indicated that the use of animated movies promoted students’ explanation ability and their understanding of scientific concepts. Findings also indicated that students who studied science with the use of animated movies developed higher motivation to learn science, in terms of: self-efficacy, interest and enjoyment, connection to daily life, and importance to their future, compared to the control students. Following the definition of multimedia, the students who study with the use of animated movies, applied all three learning styles: visual, auditory and kinesthetic. The use of multimedia and the fact that the students were engaged in exploring new concepts, that were relevant to their daily life experiences, can explain the positive results.     

Web-based Personalised System of Instruction: An effective approach for diverse cohorts with virtual learning environments?

The Personalised System of Instruction is a form of mastery learning which, though it has been proven to be educationally effective, has never seriously challenged the dominant lecture-tutorial teaching method in higher education and has largely fallen into disuse. An information and communications technology assisted version of the Personalised System of Instruction using a virtual learning environment is promoted here based on the authors’ longitudinal design research into this pedagogy. The particular elements of the virtual learning environment which are promoted are short video clips, online formative tests and an assessment management system. The authors present their experiences of developing and deploying this pedagogy for the teaching of introductory discrete mathematics to large classes of Computer Science students at two UK higher education institutions both with whole cohorts and ‘at risk’ groups of students. In particular, this method is promoted as particularly helpful to students who do not adopt a deep approach to learning as many students fail to do. Moreover ‘at risk’ students using this method (n = 71) demonstrated an average Glass effect size of 0.83 compared with other ‘at risk’ students who did not (n = 35). Based on these experiences, this pedagogy is promoted as an effective approach to teaching in higher education, especially the teaching of cognitive skills to diverse cohorts of students on foundation level modules.     

The role of spatial descriptions in learning from multimedia

In the reported experiment we investigated how spatial information conveyed in an expository text influenced multimedia learning. It was based on a 2 × 2-design with the degree of spatial information given in the text (high vs. low spatial text) and the presentation format (written text-only vs. written text + animation) as between-subjects factors. As dependent variables learning outcomes as well as self-reported cognitive load were assessed. The results revealed that there was a multimedia effect with regard to learning outcomes only for low spatial text, but not for high spatial text. Moreover, the cognitive load measures showed an overall multimedia effect irrespective of the degree of spatial information conveyed by the text (i.e., higher cognitive load ratings in the text-only conditions). These results can be explained as a special instance of the redundancy effect as well as a consequence of processing interference within visuo-spatial working memory.     

Animated agents in K-12 engineering outreach: Preferred agent characteristics across age levels

Animated agents have been found to positively impact student learning and/or perceptions within computer-based learning environments. However, there is little research on the agent characteristics preferred by K-12 students. The main purpose of this study was to examine student preferences for individual pedagogical agents and their preferences for various agent characteristics. Student preferences for the following agent characteristics were assessed using survey methodology: agent gender, age, realism, clothing, personality, speech pace, and tutoring approach. A total of N = 565 students from elementary through high school watched a computer-based multimedia overview of engineering. Four engineering disciplines were introduced by four animated agents: a young female, young male, old female, and old male agent. Immediately after viewing the computer-based overview, students completed surveys assessing preferences for the four agents and for individual agent characteristics. Results indicated that all students preferred agents and specific external agent characteristics that are close to their own external characteristics and favored internal agent characteristics that they felt would promote understanding of the domain. These findings suggest that animated agents used in computer-based K-12 engineering outreach should be close to the student’s external characteristics.     

Effects of different video lecture types on sustained attention,emotion, cognitive load,and learning performance

Although online courseware often includes multimedia materials, exactly how different video lecture types impact student performance has seldom been studied. Therefore, this study explores how three commonly used video lectures styles affect the sustained attention, emotion, cognitive load, and learning performance of verbalizers and visualizers in an autonomous online learning scenario by using a two-factor experimental design, brainwave detection, emotion-sensing equipment, cognitive load scale, and learning performance test sheet. Analysis results indicate that, while the three video lecture types enhance learning performance, learning performance with lecture capture and picture-in-picture types is superior to that associated with the voice-over type. Verbalizers and visualizers achieve the same learning performance with the three video types. Additionally, sustained attention induced by the voice-over type is markedly higher than that with the picture-in-picture type. Sustained attention of verbalizers is also significantly higher than that of visualizers when learning with the three video lectures. Moreover, the positive and negative emotions induced by the three video lectures do not appear to significantly differ from each other. Also, cognitive load related to the voice-over type is significantly higher than that with by the lecture capture and picture-in-picture types. Furthermore, the cognitive load for visualizers markedly exceeds that of verbalizers who are presented with the voice-over type. Results of this study significantly contribute to efforts to design of video lectures and also provide a valuable reference when selecting video lecture types for online learning.     

Reading direction and signaling in a simple computer simulation

The experiment investigated whether layout of cause and effect affects learning for causal connections in a simple computer simulation. Students (N = 113) used an introductory text and a simulation to learn central concepts about neural networks and then took a retention and transfer test. Each learner was randomly assigned to one cell of a 2 (compliance with reading direction or not) × 2 (with or without signaling) between subjects factorial design. Students who obtained the causal connection in reading direction (the cause is positioned on the left side, the effect is placed on the right side) performed better on transfer than did students, for whom the reading direction was reversed (from right to left). Furthermore, signals that indicated the layout of the causal connection fostered transfer performance and reduced time spent with the simulation. These results are consistent with the signaling principle and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning.     

Adaptive diagrams: Handing control over to the learner to manage split-attention online

Based on cognitive load theory, it is well known that when studying a diagram that includes explanatory text, optimal learning occurs when the text is physically positioned close to the diagram as it eliminates the need for learners to split their attention between the two sources of information. What is not known is the effect on learning when learners manage split-attention for themselves when presented with a separated diagram and explanatory text. This study focuses on this new research direction by examining how learners can self-manage cognitive load through the physical manipulation of digital materials. Physical manipulation refers to moving text objects in digital materials to connect related pieces of textual information to a diagram, thus adapting the diagram to reduce split-attention. Fifty-two university students participated in one of two experiments. Experiment 1 (N = 34) investigated whether learners who were guided to self-manage split-attention by moving text objects on a screen displaying instructional material with evident split-attention were able to reduce split-attention and thus outperform learners who were provided split-source materials. Experiment 2 (N = 18) collected verbal think-aloud protocols to uncover the students' learning processes with the materials. Results confirmed the split-attention effect thus replicating this effect in a digital domain. Furthermore, whilst the self-managed condition did not significantly outperform the split-attention condition, the added task for learners to move text boxes to relevant aspects of the diagram did not have an adverse effect on learning, as the self-managed condition performed as well as (and for a recall task slightly better than) the split-attention condition. The verbal protocols highlighted that in order for learners to successfully self-manage split-attention training and guidance needs to be more extensive and explicit. Implications for further research for this new research direction in cognitive load theory are discussed.     

Effects of different ratios of worked solution steps and problem solving opportunities on cognitive load and learning outcomes

A crucial challenge for instructional designers is to determine the amount of support that is most beneficial for learning. This experiment investigated effects of different ratios of worked solution steps (high assistance) and to-be-solved problem steps (low assistance) on cognitive skill acquisition in geometry. High-school students (N = 125) worked on a geometry lesson in a Cognitive Tutor under five different ratios (from zero worked steps and five to-be-solved steps to four worked steps and one to-be-solved step). Effects on cognitive load and learning outcomes were assessed. We expected the effectiveness of different ratios to vary with the type of learning outcomes (i.e., procedural vs. conceptual knowledge) and the difficulty of the to-be-learned principles. Results showed that for procedural knowledge (but not for conceptual knowledge) problem solving alone was most beneficial for the acquisition of procedural knowledge related to an easy principle. For a difficult principle, no ratio of worked steps and problem solving showed an advantage over another. Problem solving induced more extraneous load than studying worked examples. Thus, in determining optimal amounts of guidance type of knowledge and difficulty of the single to-be learned knowledge chunks should be considered.     

“TV no longer commands our full attention”: Effects of second-screen viewing and task relevance on cognitive load and learning from news

Second-screen viewing—the use of smartphones, tablets, and laptops while watching television—has increased dramatically in the last few years. Using multiple resource theory and threaded cognition theory, this study investigated the effects of second-screen viewing on cognitive load, factual recall and comprehension of news. Second, we examined the effects of relevant (i.e., looking up information related to the news story) and irrelevant (i.e., looking up information unrelated to the story) second-screen viewing on learning from news. Results from an experiment (N = 85) showed that second-screen viewing led to lower factual recall and comprehension of news content than single-screen viewing. These effects were mediated by cognitive load: second-screen viewing led to a higher cognitive load than single-screen viewing, with higher cognitive load, in turn, leading towards lower factual recall and comprehension of news content. Contrary to our expectations, we found no statistically significant differences between effects of relevant and irrelevant second-screen viewing.     

Benefits of adding anxiety-reducing features to a computer-based multimedia lesson on statistics

The present study examined the effectiveness of techniques intended to reduce anxiety as students learn mathematical content from a computer-based lesson. In a between-subjects experiment, students learned statistical rules through worked examples in a computer-based learning environment that either did (treatment group) or did not (control group) include anxiety reducing features—a coping message delivered through the lesson by an online pedagogical agent concerning how to manage feelings of anxiety, and prompts for expressive writing, in which students summarize their thoughts and feelings. An independent samples t-test showed that the treatment group, which received added anxiety-reducing features, showed higher accuracy than the control group on solving practice problems (d = 0.71) and retention problems (d = 0.63) and reported higher perceived effort on learning the multimedia lesson (d = 0.66). In addition, a standard multiple linear regression found that anxiety, self-efficacy, and cognitive load as a set predicted performance (R² = 0.56), with self-efficacy as the strongest predictor (β = 0.63). Adding anxiety-reducing features to an online lesson may encourage greater effort, which leads to better learning outcomes.     

The effect of functional roles on perceived group efficiency during computer-supported collaborative learning: a matter of triangulation

In this article, the effect of functional roles on group performance and collaboration during computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is investigated. Especially the need for triangulating multiple methods is emphasised: Likert-scale evaluation questions, quantitative content analysis of e-mail communication and qualitative analysis of open-ended questions were used. A comparison of 41 questionnaire observations, distributed over 13 groups in two research conditions – groups with prescribed functional roles (n = 7, N = 18) and nonrole groups (n = 6, N = 23) – revealed no main effect for performance (grade). Principal axis factoring of the Likert-scales revealed a latent variable that was interpreted as perceived group efficiency (PGE). Multilevel modelling (MLM) yielded a positive marginal effect of PGE. Most groups in the role condition report a higher degree of PGE than nonrole groups. Content analysis of e-mail communication of all groups in both conditions (role n = 7, N = 25; nonrole n = 6, N = 26) revealed that students in role groups contribute more ‘coordination’ focussed statements. Finally, results from cross case matrices of student responses to open-ended questions support the observed marginal effect that most role groups report a higher degree of PGE than nonrole groups.     

Computer program in the treatment for major depression and cognitive impairment in university students

Introduction

A depressed patient presents cognitive impairment that remains in spite of depression’s remission. This study intends to evaluate the impact of cognitive training in the treatment of depression, and also of the impairment that depression causes.

Method

A program for cognitive training (Alcor) was designed for and applied to a group of patients (n = 10) with non-medicated MDD; a group (N = 10) with MDD that was treated with the program and with anti-depressants, and to another group (n = 11) that was given anti-depressors only. The impact of this intervention was assessed by applying the following instruments: Beck Depression Inventory, WAIS, Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Externalized Problems Assessment Scale for Adolescents and Young Adults, and Attention Problems Assessment Scale. The program was applied to University students with MDD twice a week, until they had reached adequate levels of execution.

Results

The patients of all three groups showed MDD event remission. Those who received cognitive training showed a substantial increase of intellectual performance. The cognitive treatment group increased IQ in 12.9 units and the combined group increase in 13.3 units. There was a slight decrease of 1.9 units within the anti-depressant treatment group. The changes in attention and in externalized problems showed the same trends.     

In-class multitasking and academic performance

The omnipresence of student-owned information and communication technologies (ICTs) in today’s college classrooms presents educational opportunities but can also create learning problems. Specifically, multitasking with these technologies can interfere with the learning process. Indeed, research in cognitive science shows that there are clear performance decrements when trying to attend to two tasks at the same time. This study examines the frequency with which students multitask during class using a large sample (N = 1,839) and examines the relationship between multitasking and academic performance as measured by actual overall semester grade point average (GPA). Students reported frequently text messaging during class but reported multitasking with other ICTs to a lesser extent. Furthermore, only social technologies (Facebook and text messaging) were negatively related to GPA.     

Performance measures in courses using computer-aided personalized system of instruction

Archived data from four courses taught with computer-aided personalized system of instruction (CAPSI) – an online, self-paced, instructional program – were used to explore the relationship between objectively rescored final exam grades, peer reviewing, and progress rate – i.e., the rate at which students completed unit tests. There was a strong positive correlation (r = .68, p < .01) between rate of progress and the amount of peer reviewing students did. This was predictable because peer reviewers had to be further along in the course than the students whose unit tests they reviewed. Students who completed all the units tended to obtain higher final exam scores than those who did not. For students who completed all the units there was little difference between the final exam performance of those who had a high progress rate and those who had a low progress rate. Considering all students together there was a moderate correlation between progress rate and final exam performance (r = .36, p < .01). In addition, there was a moderate positive correlation (r = .33, p < .01) between the amount of peer reviewing students did and their performance on the final exam. This correlation was substantially reduced (r = .13, p < .20) when rate of progress was partialed out. Thus, overall, students who progressed more rapidly through the course did more peer reviewing and learned more as measured by final exam performance. Interestingly, there were students who showed good learning without much participation in course related behaviors such as completing unit tests and peer reviewing. It is concluded that the CAPSI instructional program provides a good learning environment for students who utilize its components but it also accommodates other learning styles. In addition, there may be a distinction between students who complete all assigned units and those who do not regardless of their tendencies to procrastinate.