Effect of hypertext highlighting on browsing,reading, and navigational performance

Reading hypertext documents is more difficult than reading traditional linear text. Text highlighting plays the role of encoding for reading comprehension and may play the roles of contextual cues and landmarks for hypertext navigation. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of text highlight and organizing highlighted text into a hierarchical structure on browsing, reading, and navigation performance in a network hypertext system. A randomized experiment was conducted. Ninety participants were randomly assigned to three conditions: a reading system with text highlighting, with text highlighting and organizing highlighted text, and without any aids. Dependent variables included browsing performance: time spent and the length of navigational path for reading; reading performance: recall and inference scores, navigational performance: scores of landmark and route knowledge and time spent and the length of navigational path for completing nine navigational tasks. The results showed that text highlight did not improve reading and navigational performance. By contrast, organizing highlighted text yielded significantly worst performance in reading and navigation. According to the results, we propose several suggestions for the design of reading instruction and digital highlighters.     

Comprehension and navigation of networked hypertexts

This study aims to investigate secondary school students' reading comprehension and navigation of networked hypertexts with and without a graphic overview compared to linear digital texts. Additionally, it was studied whether prior knowledge, vocabulary, verbal, and visual working memory moderated the relation between text design and comprehension. Therefore, 80 first‐year secondary school students read both a linear text and a networked hypertext with and without a graphical overview. Logfiles registered their navigation. After reading the text, students answered textbased multiple choice questions and drew mindmaps to assess their structural knowledge of each text content. It was found that both textbased and structural knowledge were lower after reading a networked hypertext than a linear text, especially in students with lower levels of vocabulary. Students took generally more time to read the hypertext than the linear text. We concluded that networked hypertexts are more challenging to read than linear texts and that students may benefit from explicit training on how to read hypertexts.     

Cognitive load in hypertext reading: A review

A process model of hypertext reading was used to generate predictions about the effects of hypertext features on cognitive processing during text navigation and comprehension. We evaluated the predictions of the model with respect to the extant literature, focusing on studies in which versions of hypertexts were compared. Consistent with our predictions, the increased demands of decision-making and visual processing in hypertext impaired reading performance. Individual differences in readers, such as working memory capacity and prior knowledge, mediated the impact of hypertext features. For example, readers with low working memory and low prior knowledge were usually disadvantaged in hypertext. Some benefits were observed for learners with low prior knowledge, however, if the hypertext structure was hierarchical and consistent with that of the knowledge domain. We also surveyed the effectiveness of structural features designed to reduce cognitive load, including graphical overviews, restricted access to links, and visible link types. Complex graphical overviews did not reliably enable learning and navigation, whereas navigational support from restricted access and visible link types were helpful. We identified gaps in the empirical literature and suggested future studies to investigate cognitive processes in hypertext reading.     

How hypertext fosters children’s knowledge acquisition: The roles of text structure and graphical overview

Children in primary and secondary school are asked to go on the Internet for school purposes while research on hypertext has scarcely investigated how children process and learn from hypertext. We therefore examined how hypertext influences children’s knowledge acquisition from expository text. A group of 71 Dutch children (13 years old) from one secondary school for pre-university education participated in the study. In a within-subjects design with four conditions, we compared: regular linear text, regular text with overview, hypertext, and hypertext with overview. Children’s (a) navigation (i.e., reading time and navigation pattern) and (b) learning (i.e., multiple choice knowledge questions and mind maps) was measured. Although reading times did not differ, the children navigated less linearly in both hypertext conditions than in the regular text with overview condition. The four types of text led to the same deep understanding as measured on the text base level. Analyses of the mind maps, however, showed the children to construct richer situation models after reading hypertext or hypertext with an overview relative to regular linear text and regular text with overview. We therefore conclude that hypertext fosters a deeper level of information processing when appropriately designed relative to regular linear text.     

Disorientation in hypertext: the effects of three text structures on navigation performance

A study is described which examines the effects of two hypertext topologies (hierarchy and non-linear) on navigation performance compared to a linear version of the same document. Subjects used the document to answer 10 questions. After a distraction period, subjects returned to the document to locate five specified nodes. Speed and accuracy measures were taken, and the subjects' own evaluation of their performance was assessed using a questionnaire. The results showed that subjects performed better with the linear text than with the non-linear text, while performance on the hierarchical document fell between these two extremes. Analysis of the questionnaire data confirmed these differences. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for computer-assisted learning systems.     

Do graphical overviews facilitate or hinder comprehension in hypertext?

Educational hypertexts usually include graphical overviews, conveying the structure of the text schematically with the aim of fostering comprehension. Despite the claims about their relevance, there is currently no consensus on the impact that hypertext overviews have on the reader’s comprehension. In the present paper we have explored how hypertext overviews might affect comprehension with regard to (a) the time at which students read the overview and (b) the hypertext difficulty. The results from two eye-tracking studies revealed that reading a graphical overview at the beginning of the hypertext is related to an improvement in the participant’s comprehension of quite difficult hypertexts, whereas reading an overview at the end of the hypertext is linked to a decrease in the student’s comprehension of easier hypertexts. These findings are interpreted in light of the Assimilation Theory and the Active Processing model. Finally, the key educational and hypertext design implications of the results are discussed.     

Do graphical overviews facilitate or hinder comprehension in hypertext?

Educational hypertexts usually include graphical overviews, conveying the structure of the text schematically with the aim of fostering comprehension. Despite the claims about their relevance, there is currently no consensus on the impact that hypertext overviews have on the reader’s comprehension. In the present paper we have explored how hypertext overviews might affect comprehension with regard to (a) the time at which students read the overview and (b) the hypertext difficulty. The results from two eye-tracking studies revealed that reading a graphical overview at the beginning of the hypertext is related to an improvement in the participant’s comprehension of quite difficult hypertexts, whereas reading an overview at the end of the hypertext is linked to a decrease in the student’s comprehension of easier hypertexts. These findings are interpreted in light of the Assimilation Theory and the Active Processing model. Finally, the key educational and hypertext design implications of the results are discussed.     

Metadoc: An adaptive hypertext reading system

Presentation of textual information is undergoing rapid transition. Millennia of experience writing linear documents is gradually being discarded in favor of non-linear hypertext writing. In this paper, we investigate how hypertext — in its current node-and-link form — can be augmented by an adaptive, user-model-driven tool. Currently the reader of a document has to adapt to that document — if the detail level is wrong the reader either skims the document or has to consult additional sources of information for clarification. The MetaDoc system not only has hypertext capabilities but also has knowledge about the documents it represents. This knowledge enables the document to modify its level of presentation to suit the user. MetaDoc builds and dynamically maintains a user model for each reader. The model tailors the presentation of the document to the reader. The three-dimensionality of MetaDoc allows the text presented to be changed either by the user model or through explicit user action. MetaDoc is more a documentation reading system rather than a hypertext navigation or reading tool. MetaDoc is a fully developed and debugged system that has been applied to technical documentation.     

Reading skills and children’s navigation strategies in hypertext

Prior research has identified two important navigation strategies that have a clear impact on hypertext comprehension: link selection and overview processing strategies. The first relate to the order in which students select hyperlinks while trying to comprehend a hypertext, whereas the second relate to when and for how long students process navigation overviews, a text device that conveys the text structure by displaying sections, titles and their relations. Most prior research in navigation strategies has been conducted with undergraduate students. We extend prior research by exploring the navigation strategies used by sixth-graders while reading a hypermedia system. We also investigate how reading skills relate to the use of navigation strategies, and how both shape students’ comprehension in hypertext. Results from an electronic reading study replicated in sixth-graders the results on navigation strategies previously found in undergraduate samples. In addition, the results revealed that reading skills predicted the use of link selection but not of overview processing strategies. We discuss our results in light of new models of electronic reading proficiency, and propose some instructional guidelines to improve children’ electronic reading proficiency.     

The influence of node sequence and extraneous load induced by graphical overviews on hypertext learning

The effects of four hypertext learning environments with a hierarchical graphical overview were studied on the coherence of the node sequence, extraneous load and comprehension. Navigation patterns were influenced by the type of overview provided (i.e., dynamic, static) and whether navigation was restricted (i.e., restricted, non-restricted). It was hypothesised that redundant use of the overview for inducing a high-coherence reading sequence would result in high extraneous load and low comprehension. Coherence was higher in the dynamic than in the static conditions. Coherence was also higher in the restricted than in the non-restricted conditions. Mental effort as a measure of extraneous load was higher at the end than at the beginning of the learning phase, especially in the dynamic restricted and the static non-restricted conditions, although there was no significant interaction. Comprehension was lowest in the dynamic restricted condition and highest in the dynamic non-restricted and static restricted conditions. Low comprehension in the dynamic restricted condition indicates that overviews can become redundant for reading sequence coherence, negatively impacting comprehension. The evidence suggests that severe restriction of navigation paths should be avoided and that continuous use of overviews such as in dynamic overviews may be detrimental to learning.     

Exploring demographic and motivational factors associated with hypertext reading by English as a foreign language (EFL) students

This study investigates nontraditional students’ of English as a foreign language self-reports of the hypertext learning experience. It determines whether factors such as gender, age, proficiency level, and hypertext learning experience influence predicting hypertext reading achievement. The subjects of this study were 23 nontraditional English majors (9 males and 14 females). Their learning efficiency was rated as low to intermediate. The primary investigation found that students generally perceived that they should have control in operating the designed hypertext system because most did not find it difficult. In addition, students could accomplish the reading tasks more quickly and easily without much mental effort. Females, older adults, and low-proficiency learners expressed more positive feedback and willingness to use the hypertext system in future compared with the other groups, although no significant differences were observed among those variables on hypertext learning experience. Hypertext comprehension performance was significantly influenced only by the factor of proficiency level. Its impact was negative and moderate. Therefore, it is suggested that the use of hypertext system demonstrated the tendency to particularly improve low-proficiency learners’ reading comprehension. Limitations and recommendations for future research are presented and discussed in light of the results of the study.     

Hypertext annotation: Effects of presentation formats and learner proficiency on reading comprehension and vocabulary learning in foreign languages

This study extends current knowledge by exploring the effect of different annotation formats, namely in-text annotation, glossary annotation, and pop-up annotation, on hypertext reading comprehension in a foreign language and vocabulary acquisition across student proficiencies. User attitudes toward the annotation presentation were also investigated. Data were collected from 83 non-English-majored university students in Taiwan in a 4-week period. Each week participants read 3 passages, each with different annotation formats as a treatment condition and one passage without annotation as a control condition. Posttests of reading comprehension and vocabulary recognition followed each passage. The results indicate that, for reading comprehension, the in-text format led to the lowest performance among all types of annotation, including the control condition. The best performance was observed in the condition where annotations were presented in the pop-up format. No interaction effect between format and proficiency was detected. For vocabulary acquisition, reading passages with hypermedia annotations significantly benefit vocabulary learning for participants of medium and high proficiencies compared with the control condition. No significant differences were found among the 3 formats. The beneficial effect, however, did not extend to low-proficiency participants. Participant feedback revealed a positive attitude toward annotations. Among the 3 annotation formats, the glossary type was considered the least preferred type by participants. Findings of the research provide insights on the design and instruction for online reading.     

Novices' need for exploration: Effects of goal specificity on hypertext navigation and comprehension

The present study examines the effects of general, medium specificity, and specific instructions on hypertext navigation and comprehension scores. Undergraduate students (N = 45) were assigned to the different hypertext conditions, and navigation patterns were extracted through cluster analysis. Control subjects (N = 45) performed the same tasks, but using paper texts. Our results suggest that novices are only affected by the specificity of instructions after an exploration phase. Also, an ANOVA showed no significant differences in comprehension scores across conditions, supporting the fact that hypertext comprehension is directly affected by navigation paths. Implications for research and education are discussed.     

A Comparative Study of Computer-Based Document Manipulation Techniques

Techniques to aid the manipulation of a computer-based document were tested by a group of 38 novice users. The subjects were given a period of time to browse the document (which employed a simple book metaphor), and were subsequently given a set of goal-related tasks in a question/answer session. The techniques tested were sequential paging, index referral, text find and embedded hypertext links. In the latter case, 3 differing types of link mechanisms were assessed and compared with each other. It was found that sequential paging and index referral were the most commonly used of the techniques. Text find was employed more for goal-related tasks than for browsing. The hypertext link technique was generally unpopular, especially for goal-related tasks. In order to establish the importance of the text find technique, the effect on reading strategies without this facility was also investigated. For browsing operations, an increase in paging and a decrease in hypertext linking was observed. In the case of goal-directed searching, an increase was observed in paging and index referral techniques.     

Attention-driven read-aloud technology increases reading comprehension in children with reading disabilities

The paper presents the design of an assistive reading tool that integrates read-aloud technology with eye tracking to regulate the speed of reading and support struggling readers in following the text while listening to it. The paper describes the design rationale of this approach, following the theory of auditory–visual integration, in terms of an automatic self-adaptable technique based on the reader's gaze that provides an individualized interaction experience. This tool has been assessed in a controlled experiment with 20 children (aged 8–10 years) with a diagnosis of dyslexia and a control group of 20 children with typical reading abilities. The results show that children with reading difficulties improved their comprehension scores by 24% measured on a standardized instrument for the assessment of reading comprehension and that children with more inaccurate reading (N = 9) tended to benefit more. The findings are discussed in terms of a better integration between audio and visual text information, paving the way to improve standard read-aloud technology with gaze-contingency and self-adaptable techniques to personalize the reading experience.     

Evaluating older adults' retention in hypertext perusal: impacts of presentation media as a function of text topology

The present study attempts to examine how older adults react to multimedia interface in hypertext perusal. Twenty-four older subjects participated in an experiment where presentation media and text topology were manipulated. A hypermedia system of tourist guide was developed to test the subject's perusal performance in terms of retention accuracy. Results showed that the main effects and interaction were significant. The use of animated graphs, static pictures, and pure text resulted in significantly descending retention when the hierarchical topology was perused. However, the advantage of animated graphs over static pictures disappeared for the referential topology but both media rendered higher retention scores than the text-only presentation. It was suggested that hypermedia interface for the aged should be designed towards the use of graph-based presentations on a hierarchical topology for better retention. Detailed implications were discussed.     

Effects of display method,number of message lines,and text colour on Chinese comprehension and subjective preferences for an LED display

This study investigated the effects of display method, number of message lines and text colour on comprehension performance and subjective preferences for reading Chinese on a light‐emitting diode display. The factors and levels studied were: two text display methods (rapid serial visual presentation ‘rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)’ and paged view scrolling), four numbers of message lines displayed at a time (one to four lines) and three text colours (amber, green and red). The RSVP method resulted in higher comprehension scores than the paged view scrolling method, and the green text produced better comprehension score than amber or red. However, the paged view scrolling received better subjective evaluation ratings than the RSVP method. A multiline display was found to be superior to a single‐line display for both comprehension scores and subjective evaluations. The results here provide useful ergonomics recommendations for choice of appropriate display method and format setting for presenting Chinese messages on light‐emitting diode displays.     

The impact of paper-based versus computerized presentation on text comprehension and memorization

We compared the effects of two media (paper vs. computer) on reading comprehension and memorization among students in their third or fourth year of secondary school. To assess comprehension, we constructed and validated a text with a carefully controlled hierarchical structure, accompanied by a questionnaire containing three types of questions (surface, semantic, inference). Memory of the text was assessed with a test based on the Remember-Know (R/K) paradigm. The results of the comprehension and R/K tests indicated that there was no difference between the two media. Regardless of medium, surface comprehension was better than either semantic or inference comprehension. The R/K test indicated that memorization was better for the surface elements of the text (more R than K responses). In conclusion, overall results show that if we fulfil all the conditions of paper-based versus computerized presentation (text structure, presentation on a single page, screen size, several types of questions measuring comprehension and memory performances), reading performances are not significantly different.     

Linking and Layout: Exploring the Integration of Text and Visualization in Storytelling

Modern web technologies are enabling authors to create various forms of text visualization integration for storytelling. This integration may shape the stories' flow and thereby affect the reading experience. In this paper, we seek to understand two text visualization integration forms: (i) different text and visualization spatial arrangements (layout), namely, vertical and slideshow; and (ii) interactive linking of text and visualization (linking). Here, linking refers to a bidirectional interaction mode that explicitly highlights the explanatory visualization element when selecting narrative text and vice versa. Through a crowdsourced study with 180 participants, we measured the effect of layout and linking on the degree to which users engage with the story (user engagement), their understanding of the story content (comprehension), and their ability to recall the story information (recall). We found that participants performed significantly better in comprehension tasks with the slideshow layout. Participant recall was better with the slideshow layout under conditions with linking versus no linking. We also found that linking significantly increased user engagement. Additionally, linking and the slideshow layout were preferred by the participants. We also explored user reading behaviors with different conditions.     

Effectiveness of hypermedia annotations for foreign language reading

Abstract This study first explores intermediate-level English learners' preferences for hypermedia annotations while they are engaged in reading a hypermedia text. Second, it examines whether multimedia annotations facilitate reading comprehension in the second language. The participants were 44 adult learners of English as a foreign language studying English for Academic Purposes. Data were collected through a tracking tool, a reading comprehension test, a questionnaire, and interviews. Results indicate that learners preferred visual annotations significantly more than textual and audio annotations. On the other hand, a negative relationship was found between annotation use and reading comprehension. Especially, pronunciations, audiorecordings, and videos were found to affect reading comprehension negatively. However, the qualitative data revealed that the participants had positive attitudes towards annotations and hypermedia reading in general.