Bandwidth-based routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks

In this paper, we propose a high performance routing protocol and a long lifetime routing protocol by considering the fact that the bandwidth between two mobile nodes should be different when distances are different. In the high performance routing protocol, to reduce the number of rerouting times, we take the bandwidth issue into account to choose the path with the capability to transmit the maximum amount of data with the help of the GPS. With exchanging the moving vectors and the coordinates of two adjacent mobile nodes, the possible link lifetime of two adjacent mobile nodes can be predicted. Subsequently, a path with the maximal amount of data transmission can be found. With regard to our proposed long lifetime routing protocol, to maximize the overall network lifetime, we find a path with the maximal remaining power after data transmission. With the link bandwidth and the desired amount of data transmitted, the consumption power is computed to obtain the remaining power of a mobile node. Accordingly, we can choose the path with the maximal predicted remaining power to maximize the overall network lifetime. In the simulation, we compare our high performance routing protocol with the AODV and LAWS in terms of throughput, rerouting (path breakage), and route lifetime. With respect to power consumption, we compare our proposed power-aware routing protocol with the POAD and PAMP in terms of the overall network lifetime and the ration of survival nodes to the all nodes.     

Adaptive routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Artificial immune systems (AIS) are used for solving complex optimization problems and can be applied to the detection of misbehaviors, such as a fault tolerant. We present novel techniques for the routing optimization from the perspective of the artificial immunology theory. We discussed the bioinspired protocol AntOR and analyze its new enhancements. This ACO protocol based on swarm intelligence takes into account the behavior of the ants at the time of obtaining the food. In the simulation results we compare it with the reactive protocol AODV observing how our proposal improves it according to Jitter, the delivered data packet ratio, throughput and overhead in number of packets metrics.     

Efficient virtual-backbone routing in mobile ad hoc networks

Since the physical topology of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) is generally unstable, an appealing approach is the construction of a stable and robust virtual topology or backbone. A virtual backbone can play important roles related to routing and connectivity management. In this paper, the problem of providing such a virtual backbone with low overhead is investigated. In particular, we propose an approach, called virtual grid architecture (VGA), that can be applied to both homogeneous and heterogeneous MANETs. We study the performance tradeoffs between the VGA clustering approach and an optimal clustering based on an integer linear program (ILP) formulation. Many properties of the VGA clustering approach, e.g., VGA size, route length over VGA, and clustering overhead are also studied and quantified. Analytical as well as simulation results show that average route length over VGA and VGA cardinality tend to be close to optimal. The results also show that the overhead of creating and maintaining VGA is greatly reduced, and thus the routing performance is improved significantly. To illustrate, two hierarchical routing techniques that operate on top of VGA are presented and evaluated. Performance evaluation shows that VGA clustering approach, albeit simple, is able to provide more stable (long lifetime) routes, deliver more packets, and accept more calls.     

Dynamic backup routes routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), which provide data networking without infrastructure, represent one kind of wireless networks. A MANET is a self-organizating and adaptive wireless network formed by the dynamic gathering of mobile nodes. Due to the mobility of mobile nodes, the topology of a MANET frequently changes and thus results in the disability of originally on-the-fly data transmission routes. The dynamic properties of MANETs are therefore challenging to protocol design. To cope with the intrinsic properties of MANETs, Dynamic Backup Routes Routing Protocol (DBR²P), a backup node mechanism for quick reconnection during link failures, is proposed in this paper. DBR²P is an on-demand routing protocol and it can set up many routes to reach a destination node in a given period. Even when a link fails, those routes from the source node to the destination node can be analyzed to obtain backup routes to sustain quick reconnection. The information of backup routes can be saved in a specific on-the-route node and enables backup routes to be found immediately in situation regarding disconnection. As a result, DBR²P could more thoroughly improve the quality of routing protocol than those proposed in the past.     

A two-zone hybrid routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Recently, an elegant routing protocol, the zone routing protocol (ZRP), was proposed to provide a hybrid routing framework that is locally proactive and globally reactive, with the goal of minimizing the sum of the proactive and reactive control overhead. The key idea of ZRP is that each node proactively advertises its link state over a fixed number of hops, called the zone radius. These local advertisements provide each node with an updated view of its routing zone - the collection of all nodes and links that are reachable within the zone radius. The nodes on the boundary of the routing zone are called peripheral nodes and play an important role in the reactive zone-based route discovery. The main contribution of this work is to propose a novel hybrid routing protocol - the two-zone routing protocol (TZRP) - as a nontrivial extension of ZRP. In contrast with the original ZRP where a single zone serves a dual purpose, TZRP aims to decouple the protocol's ability to adapt to traffic characteristics from its ability to adapt to mobility. In support of this goal, in TZRP each node maintains two zones: a crisp zone and a fuzzy zone. By adjusting the sizes of these two zones independently, a lower total routing control overhead can be achieved. Extensive simulation results show that TZRP is a general MANET routing framework that can balance the trade offs between various routing control overheads more effectively than ZRP in a wide range of network conditions.     

Enhancing data security in ad hoc networks based on multipath routing

An ad hoc network is a self-organizing network of wireless links connecting mobile nodes. The mobile nodes can communicate without an infrastructure. They form an arbitrary topology, where the nodes play the role of routers and are free to move randomly.     

A stable weight-based on-demand routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) consists of a set of mobile hosts that can communicate with each other without the assistance of base stations. In MANETs, the high mobility of mobile nodes is a major reason for link failures. In this paper, we propose a stable weight-based on-demand routing protocol (SWORP) for MANETs. The proposed scheme uses the weight-based route strategy to select a stable route in order to enhance system performance. The weight of a route is decided by three factors: the route expiration time, the error count, and the hop count. Route discovery usually first finds multiple routes from the source node to the destination node. Then the path with the largest weight value for routing is selected. Simulation results show that the proposed SWORP outperforms DSR, AODV, and AODV-RFC, especially in a high mobility environment.     

Cross-layer routing for peer database querying over mobile ad hoc networks

The widespread of mobile ad hoc networking calls for a careful design of network functions in order to meet the application requirements and economize on the limited resources. In this paper we address the problem of distributing query messages among peers in mobile ad hoc networks. We assume that peers are organized in classes. Each peer possesses a local database and can answer queries posed by other peers. Each peer can also pose queries to all the peers belonging to a certain class or classes. Contrary to traditional p2p lookup queries, we are interested in collecting answers from as many peers as possible. We propose a query routing protocol, called CL-QF, which is based on a novel cross-layer design. The purpose of this design is to incorporate application layer specifics (e.g., class information) into the network layer in order to reduce transmissions therefore economize on resources. CL-QF coexists with traditional routing. This synergy minimizes the complexity and signaling of CL-QF while the network is able to seamlessly provide legacy unicast communication. CL-QF manages a reduction of up to ～78% compared to non-cross-layer approaches, such as probabilistic forwarding, without compromising the ability to effectively collect replies.     

A learning automata-based fault-tolerant routing algorithm for mobile ad hoc networks

Reliable routing of packets in a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) has always been a major concern. The open medium and the susceptibility of the nodes of being fault-prone make the design of protocols for these networks a challenging task. The faults in these networks, which occur either due to the failure of nodes or due to reorganization, can eventuate to packet loss. Such losses degrade the performance of the routing protocols running on them. In this paper, we propose a routing algorithm, named as learning automata based fault-tolerant routing algorithm (LAFTRA), which is capable of routing in the presence of faulty nodes in MANETs using multipath routing. We have used the theory of Learning Automata (LA) for optimizing the selection of paths, reducing the overhead in the network, and for learning about the faulty nodes present in the network. The proposed algorithm can be juxtaposed to any existing routing protocol in a MANET. The results of simulation of our protocol using network simulator 2 (ns-2) shows the increase in packet delivery ratio and decrease in overhead compared to the existing protocols. The proposed protocol gains an edge over FTAR, E2FT by nearly 2% and by more than 10% when compared with AODV in terms of packet delivery ratio with nearly 30% faulty nodes in the network. The overhead generated by our protocol is lesser by 1% as compared to FTAR and by nearly 17% as compared to E2FT when there are nearly 30% faulty nodes.     

QoS routing with traffic distribution in mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) follow a unique organizational and behavioral logic. MANETs’ characteristics such as their dynamic topology coupled with the characteristics of the wireless communication medium make Quality of Service provisioning a difficult challenge. This paper presents a new approach based on a mobile routing backbone for supporting Quality of Service (QoS) in MANETs. In real-life MANETs, nodes will possess different communication capabilities and processing characteristics. Hence, we aim to identify those nodes whose capabilities and characteristics will enable them to take part in the mobile routing backbone and efficiently participate in the routing process. Moreover, the route discovery mechanism we developed for the mobile routing backbone dynamically distributes traffic within the network according to current network traffic levels and nodes’ processing loads. Simulation results show that our solution improves network throughput and packet delivery ratio by directing traffic through lowly congested regions of the network that are rich in resources. Moreover, our protocol incurs lower communication overheads than AODV (ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol) when searching for routes in the network.     

Integrated location management and location-aided routing system for mobile ad hoc networks

We present an integrated location management and location-aided routing system for mobile ad hoc network (MANET) which organizes the MANET into a two-level routing hierarchy with the help of Voronoi diagrams. The location information of mobile nodes in a Voronoi zone is summarized using bloom filters and distributed among the location servers in the zones. In the integrated system, the destination's location is learned during routing in the overlay network of the hierarchy. Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that the proposed system reduces the routing time by about 25% over traditional location-aided routing techniques for transaction-type traffic while incurring only small management overhead and low storage requirement.     

Signal strength based routing for power saving in mobile ad hoc networks

The transmission bandwidth between two nodes in mobile ad hoc networks is important in terms of power consumption. However, the bandwidth between two nodes is always treated the same, regardless of what the distance is between the two nodes. If a node equips a GPS device to determine the distance between two nodes, the hardware cost and the power consumption increase. In this paper, we propose using a bandwidth-based power-aware routing protocol with signal detection instead of using GPS devices to determine the distance. In our proposed routing protocol, we use the received signal variation to predict the transmission bandwidth and the lifetime of a link. Accordingly, the possible amount of data that can be transmitted and the remaining power of nodes in the path after data transmission can be predicted. By predicting the possible amount of data that can be transmitted and the remaining power of nodes after data transmission, we can design a bandwidth-based power-aware routing protocol that has power efficiency and that prolongs network lifetime. In our simulation, we compare our proposed routing protocol with two signal-based routing protocols, SSA and ABR, and a power-aware routing protocol, MMBCR, in terms of the throughput, the average transmission bandwidth, the number of rerouting paths, the path lifetime, the power consumed when a byte is transmitted, and the network lifetime (the ratio of active nodes).     

A link availability-based QoS-aware routing protocol for mobile ad hoc sensor networks

With more and more wireless devices being mobile, there is a constant challenge to provide reliable and high quality communication services among these devices. In this paper, we propose a link availability-based QoS-aware (LABQ) routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks based on mobility prediction and link quality measurement, in addition to energy consumption estimate. The goal is to provide highly reliable and better communication links with energy-efficiency. The proposed routing algorithm has been verified by NS-2 simulations. The results have shown that LABQ outperforms existing algorithms by significantly reducing link breakages and thereby reducing the overheads in reconnection and retransmission. It also reduces the average end-to-end delay for data transfer and enhances the lifetime of nodes by making energy-efficient routing decisions.     

基于生命期预测的移动Ad hoc网络多径路由策略

在移动自组网中,由于网络节点的移动性和拓扑结构的多态性,多路径路由在稳定性,均衡负载方面优于单路径路由,非常适合Ad hoc网络。考虑到移动自组网中节点能量的局限性,在DSR协议的基础上提出了一种新型的多径路由算法。该算法结合节点路径的能量消耗率,预测出链路的生命期,以求找到多条有效路径并进行传输。仿真结果表明,该协议比DSR具有更好的吞吐量和端到端延迟。     

On-demand utility-based power control routing for energy-aware optimization in mobile ad hoc networks

In this paper, we propose a novel on-demand energy-aware routing protocol, utility-based power control routing (UBPCR), which reduces the trade-offs that arise in the other energy-aware route selection mechanisms that have recently been proposed for mobile ad hoc networks. Our approach is based on an economic framework that represents the degree of link's satisfaction (utility). With UBPCR, the utility function for any transmitter–receiver pair is defined as a measure of the link's preference regarding the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR), the transmit power, and the transmitter's residual battery capacity. During a route-searching process, each intermediate node between the source and the destination is executed via two consecutive phases: the scheduling phase and the transmit power control phase. The scheduling algorithm finds the proper qualified data slot for the receiving channel so that the transmissions of independent transmitters can be coordinated. The transmit power control determines the optimal power, if one exists, that maximizes the corresponding link's utility. Extensive simulations show that the UBPCR protocol can achieve incompatible goals simultaneously and fairly.     

A mobility aware protocol synthesis for efficient routing in ad hoc mobile networks

In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), the mobility of the nodes is a complicating factor that significantly affects the effectiveness and performance of the routing protocols. Our work builds upon recent results on the effect of node mobility on the performance of available routing strategies (i.e., path-based, using support) and proposes a protocol framework that exploits the usually different mobility rates of the nodes by adapting the routing strategy during execution. We introduce a metric for the relative mobility of the nodes, according to which the nodes are classified into mobility classes. These mobility classes determine, for any pair of origin and destination, the routing technique that best corresponds to their mobility properties. Moreover, special care is taken for nodes remaining almost stationary or moving with high (relative) speeds. Our key design goal is to limit the necessary implementation changes required to incorporate existing routing protocols into our framework. We provide extensive evaluation of the proposed framework, using a well-known simulator (NS2). Our first findings demonstrate that the proposed framework improves, in certain cases, the performance of existing routing protocols.     

Randomized dynamic route maintenance for adaptive routing in multihop mobile ad hoc networks

Several approaches have been proposed for designing multihop routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANET). Many of them adopt a method, called flooding, to discover a routing path. Due to the time-varying nature of the route in MANET, the discovered route needs to be dynamically maintained for optimality in terms of traffic load, hop-distance, and resource usage. It is easy to see that flooding incurs significant overhead and hence is inappropriate for the dynamic route maintenance. In this paper we propose a randomized, dynamic route maintenance scheme for adaptive routing in MANET. The scheme makes use of a nomadic control packet (NCP) which travels through the network based on a random walk, and collects its stopovers as a traversal record. The NCP uses the traversal record to probabilistically provide the nodes with clue for routing path updates. From the clue, the nodes can find the routing path update information that is up-to-date and optimal (less-loaded and shorter), thereby adapting to the dynamic network topology and traffic load conditions. We present an analytical model for measuring the effectiveness of NCP in terms of its frequency of visits and probability of finding the clue from the NCP traversal record. The proposed randomized scheme serves as a routing protocol supporting layer and can be easily applied with minimum modifications to the existing on-demand routing protocols such as AODV and DSR. In our experimental study, we modified the AODV protocol to maintain routing paths using NCPs’ traversal record. Simulation results show that NCPs help the routing protocol to notably reduce average end-to-end packet delay with increased route optimality and better control on traffic congestion.     

Unicast routing protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks: A critical comparison and classification

Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks (VANETs) allow vehicles to form a self-organized network without the need for a permanent infrastructure. As a prerequisite to communication, an efficient route between network nodes must be established, and it must adapt to the rapidly changing topology of vehicles in motion. This is the aim of VANET routing protocols. In this paper, we discuss the design factors of unicast routing protocols for VANETs, and present a timeline of the development of the existing unicast routing protocols. Moreover, we classify and characterize the existing unicast routing protocols for VANETs, and also provide a qualitative comparison of them. This classification and characterization gives a clear picture of the strengths and weaknesses of existing protocols in this area and also throws light on open issues that remain to be addressed. Multicast routing protocols are also very important in VANETs; however, they are outside the scope of this paper.