Wind energy and the hydrogen economy—review of the technology

The hydrogen economy is an inevitable energy system of the future where the available energy sources (preferably the renewable ones) will be used to generate hydrogen and electricity as energy carriers, which are capable of satisfying all the energy needs of human civilization. The transition to a hydrogen economy may have already begun. This paper presents a review of hydrogen energy technologies, namely technologies for hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and utilization. Possibilities for utilization of wind energy to generate hydrogen are discussed in parallel with possibilities to use hydrogen to enhance wind power competitiveness.     

The dimensions of the policy debate over transportation energy: The case of hydrogen in the United States

Environmental and politico-strategic concerns have driven the increase in policy activity related to energy that the United States witnessed in the last few years. The nature of the issues at stake and the level of stakeholder involvement result in a highly complex policy debate. The broad concern of this paper is the study of this energy-policy process and the identification of the main policy issues. Specifically, multivariate analysis is applied to data on a wide variety of stakeholders’ policy beliefs and policy preferences to identify the policy dimensions that characterize the debate over energy policy in the United States. The focus is on the policy debate over hydrogen as a transportation fuel, although many results are applicable to the debate over transportation energy at large. The analysis uses a dataset of 502 individuals from 323 different stakeholder organizations obtained via a web-based survey specifically designed for this study.     

Well-to-wheel study of passenger vehicles in the Norwegian energy system

For the evaluation of potential routes for production and application of hydrogen in a future energy system, well-to-wheel (WtW) methodologies provide a means of comparing overall impacts of technologies and fuels in a consistent and transparent manner. Such analysis provides important background information for decision makers when implementing political incentives for the conversion to more environmentally friendly energy production and consumption. In this study, a WtW approach was applied in order to evaluate the energetic and environmental impacts of introducing hydrogen in the transportation sector, in terms of energy efficiency and emissions of CO₂ and NO_x, under conditions relevant for the Norwegian energy system. The hydrogen chains were compared to reference chains with conventional fuels.     

Dynamic simulation of hydrogen-based zero energy buildings with hydrogen energy storage for various climate conditions

Solar energy systems are an effective way to meet the needs of zone heating, cooling, electricity, and domestic hot water. However, to reach sustainability, and energy storage unit should be considered for installation. In this study, two combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) systems are simulated and studied using TRNSYS software; both using natural gas engine generators and photovoltaics as prime movers and a hydrogen fuel cell/electrolyzer storage unit, one with absorption chiller and another with compression chiller cooling. For the study, a residential building is modeled for three major populated climate zones of the United States of America, namely, Hot-humid, mixed-humid and cold using DesignBuilder and EnergyPlus software. The energy demand for its HVAC operation and domestic electricity is obtained and used for system simulation in TRNSYS software. Due to choosing actual equipment for the CCHP arrangement, precise economic and environmental models are designed to further evaluate the possibility of execution of the system. The results show that absorption chiller-equipped CCHP has better performance both environmentally and economically. In addition, the outcome shows that the suggested systems show less favorability to be utilized in hot humid climate zones.     

An updated overview of Canada's hydrogen related research and development activities

Finding nature-friendly replacements for fossil-fuels based energy sources are considered vital, and such a task becomes critical for sustainable development. In this regard, hydrogen carries a significant weight potentially and becomes an essential driver in transitioning the economic sectors to carbon-free ones. While the world experiences this kind of transition with hydrogen, Canada appears to be among top ten countries conducting research, development and innovation activities extensively on hydrogen and intending to make hydrogen a key player in their green energy transition. In this study, the contributions of Canadian academic institutions, research centers and other organizations to hydrogen-related research, development and innovation activities over the last fifty years are studied and evaluated comparatively. A comprehensive literature search is conducted to identify the number of hydrogen-related research articles, books, dissertations, patents and funded projects affiliated with Canadian institutes. The findings are presented graphically and discussed from various perspectives. The conducted literature search results show that Canadian institutes have contributed to hydrogen research with a total of 112,454 scholarly publications from 1971 to 2021. During period, the number of hydrogen-related academic articles and books has become 108,437 and 2995, respectively. In the subject area of energy, the relatively young Canadian institution, Ontario Tech University, has contributed the highest to hydrogen research in Canada by producing about 11% of academic articles and about 27% of books, book chapters, and editorials in the subject matter field of hydrogen research and development activities.     

Global hydrogen development - A technological and geopolitical overview

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that will certainly make an important and decisive contribution to the global energy transition and lead to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the coming decades. It is estimated that 60% of GHG emission reductions in the last phase of the energy transition could come from renewables, green hydrogen and electrification based on green energy development. Coordinated efforts by governments, industry and investors, as well as substantial investment in the energy sector, will be required to develop the hydrogen value chain on a global scale. This paper summarizes the technical and technological advances involved in the production, purification, compression, transportation and use of hydrogen. We also describe the roadmaps and strategies that have been developed in recent years in different countries for large-scale hydrogen production.     

A renewable source based hydrogen energy system for residential applications

In this study, both concentrated solar power and wind energy systems are integrated with electrolyser, fuel cell and absorption cooling subsystems to supply power, cooling, heating and hydrogen to residential applications in an environmentally benign and efficient manner. These subsystems are integrated in a unique way to manage the excess power through water electrolysis to produce and store hydrogen. Integrated systems are thermodynamically analyzed, and their performance is assessed comparatively. Solar radiation intensity, inlet temperature and wind velocity are taken into account, and hence their effects on the system performance are investigated. The results of this study show that the present system appears to be efficient, environmentally friendly and hence sustainable.     

The potential role of hydrogen as a sustainable transportation fuel to combat global warming

Hydrogen is recognized as a key source of the sustainable energy solutions. The transportation sector is known as one of the largest fuel consumers of the global energy market. Hydrogen can become a promising fuel for sustainable transportation by providing clean, reliable, safe, convenient, customer friendly, and affordable energy. In this study, the possibility of hydrogen as the major fuel for transportation systems is investigated comprehensively based on the recent data published in the literature. Due to its several characteristic advantages, such as energy density, abundance, ease of transportation, a wide variety of production methods from clean and renewable fuels with zero or minimal emissions; hydrogen appears to be a great chemical fuel which can potentially replace fossil fuel use in internal combustion engines. In order to take advantage of hydrogen as an internal combustion engine fuel, existing engines should be redesigned to avoid abnormal combustion. Hydrogen use in internal combustion engines could enhance system efficiencies, offer higher power outputs per vehicle, and emit lower amounts of greenhouse gases. Even though hydrogen-powered fuel cells have lower emissions than internal combustion engines, they require additional space and weight and they are generally more expensive. Therefore, the scope of this study is hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. It is also highlighted that in order to become a truly sustainable and clean fuel, hydrogen should be produced from renewable energy and material resources with zero or minimal emissions at high efficiencies. In addition, in this study, conventional, hybrid, electric, biofuel, fuel cell, and hydrogen fueled ICE vehicles are comparatively assessed based on their CO₂ and SO₂ emissions, social cost of carbon, energy and exergy efficiencies, fuel consumption, fuel price, and driving range. The results show that when all of these criteria are taken into account, fuel cell vehicles have the highest average performance ranking (4.97/10), followed by hydrogen fueled ICEs (4.81/10) and biofuel vehicles (4.71/10). On the other hand, conventional vehicles have the lowest average performance ranking (1.21/10), followed by electric vehicles (4.24/10) and hybrid vehicles (4.53/10).     

System failure,innovation policy and patents: Fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway 1990–2002

The empirical focus of this article is technological innovation activities in the emerging field of fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway from 1990 to 2002. In this period, four comparatively large-scale research and development projects and a number of smaller projects aimed at development of fuel cells technology were undertaken, resulting in many inventions that were subsequently patented. Although this creativity may be considered an indication of success, only one of the projects became successful in an innovation perspective. All the large projects were initiated and funded for divergent political and economic reasons. An important reason in the late 1980s was the prospect of using Norway's abundant supply of natural gas in fuel cells for electric power generation. The large R&D projects that attempted to develop fuel cells based on natural gas as energy source failed. In contrast, the successful project was undertaken by military R&D, i.e. in a different system of innovation than the projects that failed. Analysis of these cases points to the importance of a systemic approach to innovations—and to policy making. One challenge for policy makers is to decide how they should promote this development which is crucial for the vision of a future “Hydrogen Economy”, i.e. what kind of policy incentives should be introduced to spur efficiency in technological development and diffusion. Theoretically, many options are available; however, understanding the innovation dynamics in this sector is fundamental for making choices. In this article, focus will be set on policy aspects using an innovation systemic approach to analyze development of fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway.     

Economics of producing hydrogen as transportation fuel using offshore wind energy systems

Over the past few years, hydrogen has been recognized as a suitable substitute for present vehicular fuels. This paper covers the economic analysis of one of the most promising hydrogen production methods—using wind energy for producing hydrogen through electrolysis of seawater—with a concentration on the Indian transport sector. The analysis provides insights about several questions such as the advantages of offshore plants over coastal installations, economics of large wind-machine clusters, and comparison of cost of producing hydrogen with competing gasoline. Robustness of results has been checked by developing several scenarios such as fast/slow learning rates for wind systems for determining future trends. Results of this analysis show that use of hydrogen for transportation is not likely to be attractive before 2012, and that too with considerable learning in wind, electrolyzer and hydrogen storage technology.     

Design layout of hydrogen research and development garage

Research and development programs toward fuel cells and other hydrogen technologies have increased significantly during the past two decades. These programs require appropriate facilities to undertake the research and development programs. This paper discusses the design layout of one such facility, the “Missouri S&T EcoCAR Hydrogen Vehicle Garage”, which can be used as a model while designing a hydrogen R&D garage. The Missouri S&T EcoCAR garage is a 12.2 m × 7.6 m garage situated at the Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T) and serves as the headquarters for the Missouri S&T EcoCAR team. Within the garage, students will gain real-world, hands-on experience by transforming a standard production vehicle into a hydrogen Fuel Cell Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FC-PHEV). The garage is classified as a Class 1 Division 2, Group B hazardous location and is equipped to safely test and integrate the vehicle prototype. Specifically, the design includes (i) a hydrogen gas detection system, (ii) hazardous location electrical service, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning, lighting, and compressed air systems, and (iii) emergency backup electric power system with alarms/monitors/security cameras for the hydrogen R&D facility. The garage will be connected to an external backup power supply unit which will be powered by a PEM fuel cell.     

Construction and operation of hydrogen energy utilization system for a zero emission building

A bench-scale stationary hydrogen energy utilization system with renewable energy (RE) that realizes a zero emission building (ZEB) is presented. To facilitate compactness, safety, and mild operation conditions, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer for hydrogen production (5 Nm³/h), PEM fuel cells (FC) for hydrogen use (3.5 kW), and metal hydride (MH) tanks for hydrogen storage (80 Nm³) are incorporated. Each hydrogen apparatus and Li-ion batteries (20 kW/20 kWh) are installed in a 12-ft. container and 20-kW photovoltaic panels provide power. A building energy management system (BEMS) controlled these system components in an integrated manner. The PEM Ely and FC have fast start-up and high efficiency under partial load operations, indicating suitability for daily start-stop operations. An AB-type TiFe-based alloy (520 kg) is used as the MH (not an AB₅-type rare earth alloy that has been commonly used in bench-scale hydrogen store) because, in addition to being low-cost, it is non-hazardous material under Japanese regulations. The results of a 24-h operation experiment verify ZEB attainment. PEM FC and TiFe-based tanks thermal integration results indicate that hydrogen use operation is achievable without external heat sources.     

Electrochemical hydrogen storage: Opportunities for fuel storage,batteries, fuel cells,and supercapacitors

Solid-state storage of hydrogen is a possible breakthrough to realise the unique futures of hydrogen as a green fuel. Among possible methods, electrochemical hydrogen storage is very promising, as can be conducted at low temperature and pressure with a simple device reversibly. However, it has been overshadowed by the physical hydrogen storage in the literature, and thus, research efforts are not adequately connected to lead us in the right direction. On the other hand, electrochemical hydrogen storage is the basis of some other electrochemical power sources such as batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors. For instance, available hydrogen storage materials can build supercapacitors with exceptionally high specific capacitance in order of 4000 F g^?1. In general, electrochemical hydrogen storage plays a substantial role in the future of not only hydrogen storage but also electrochemical power sources. There are some vague points which have obscured our understanding of the corresponding system to be developed practically. This review aims to portray the entire field and detect those ambiguous points which are indeed the key obstacles. It is clarified that different materials have somehow similar mechanisms for electrochemical hydrogen storage, which is initiated by hydrogen dissociation, surface adsorption and probably diffusing deep within the bulk material. This mechanism is different from the insertion/extraction of alkali metals, though battery materials look similar. Based on the available reports, it seems that the most promising material design for the future of electrochemical hydrogen storage is a class of subtly designed nanocomposites of Mg-based alloys and mesoporous carbons.     

Life cycle assessment of hydrogen fuel cell and gasoline vehicles

A life cycle assessment of hydrogen and gasoline vehicles, including fuel production and utilization in vehicles powered by fuel cells and internal combustion engines, is conducted to evaluate and compare their efficiencies and environmental impacts. Fossil fuel and renewable technologies are investigated, and the assessment is divided into various stages.     

How the hydrogen production from RES could change energy and fuel markets: A review of recent literature

The goal that the international community has set itself is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the short/medium-term, especially in Europe that committed itself to reducing GHG emissions to 80–95% below 1990 levels by 2050. Renewable energies play a fundamental role in achieving this objective. In this context, the policies of the main industrialized countries of the world are being oriented towards increasing the shares of electricity produced from renewable energy sources (RES).In recent years, the production of renewable energy has increased considerably, but given the availability of these sources, there is a mismatch between production and demand. This raises some issues as balancing the electricity grid and, in particular, the use of surplus energy, as well as the need to strengthen the electricity network.Among the various new solutions that are being evaluated, there are: the accumulation in batteries, the use of compressed air energy storage (CAES) and the production of hydrogen that appears to be the most suitable to associate with the water storage (pumped hydro). Concerning hydrogen, a recent study highlights that the efficiencies of hydrogen storage technologies are lower compared to advanced lead acid batteries on a DC-to-DC basis, but “in contrast […] the cost of hydrogen storage is competitive with batteries and could be competitive with CAES and pumped hydro in locations that are not favourable for these technologies” (Moliner et al., 2016) [1].This shows that, once the optimal efficiency rate is reached, the technologies concerning the production of hydrogen from renewable sources will be a viable and competitive solution. But, what will be the impact on the energy and fuel markets? The production of hydrogen through electrolysis will certainly have an important economic impact, especially in the transport sector, leading to the creation of a new market and a new supply chain that will change the physiognomy of the entire energy market.     

Thermodynamic analysis of solar energy use for reforming fuels to hydrogen

In this paper, a method is proposed for reforming fuels to hydrogen using solar energy at distributed locations (industrial sites, residential and commercial buildings fed with natural gas, remote settlements supplied by propane etc). In order to harness solar energy a solar concentrator is used to generate high temperature heat to reform fuels to hydrogen. A typical fuel such as natural gas, propane, methanol, or an atypical fuel such as ammonia or urea can be transported to distributed locations via gas networks or other means. The thermodynamic analysis of the process shows the general reformation reactions for NH₃, CH₄ and C₃H₈ as the input fuel by comparison through operational fuel cost and CO₂ mitigation indices. Through a cost analysis, cost reduction indices show fuel-usage cost reductions of 10.5%, 22.1%, and 22.2% respectively for the reformation of ammonia, methane, and propane. CO₂ mitigation indices show fuel-usage CO₂ mitigations of 22.1% and 22.3% for methane and propane respectively, where ammonia reformation eliminates CO₂ emission at the fuel-usage stage. The option of reforming ammonia is examined in further detail as proposed cycles for solar energy capture are considered. A mismatch of specific heats from the solar dish is observed between incoming and outgoing streams, allowing a power production system to be included for a more complete energy capture. Further investigation revealed the most advantageous system with a direct expansion turbine being considered rather than an external power cycle such as Brayton or Rankine type cycles. Also, an energy efficiency of approximately 93% is achievable within the reformation cycle.     

An economic survey of hydrogen production from conventional and alternative energy sources

A source of hydrogen is needed in the developing hydrogen economy, and many technologies are available for producing hydrogen from both conventional and alternative energy resources such as natural gas, coal, atoms, sunlight, wind, and biomass. The following paper summarizes the economics of producing hydrogen from each of these sources and gives an overview of the energy resource for each feedstock. The results of the analysis show that the most economical sources of hydrogen are coal and natural gas, with an estimated cost of 0.36–1.83 $/kg and 2.48–3.17 $/kg for each energy source, respectively. Alternative energy provides hydrogen at a higher cost; however, fossil fuel feedstock costs are increasing as technology enhancements are decreasing the cost of alternative energy sources, and therefore alternative energy sources may become more economical in the future.     

Performance investigation of an integrated wind energy system for co-generation of power and hydrogen

In this paper, a wind turbine energy system is integrated with a hydrogen fuel cell and proton exchange membrane electrolyzer to provide electricity and heat to a community of households. Different cases for varying wind speeds are taken into consideration. Wind turbines meet the electricity demand when there is sufficient wind speed available. During high wind speeds, the excess electricity generated is supplied to the electrolyzer to produce hydrogen which is stored in a storage tank. It is later utilized in the fuel cell to provide electricity during periods of low wind speeds to overcome the shortage of electricity supply. The fuel cell operates during high demand conditions and provides electricity and heat for the residential application. The overall efficiency of the system is calculated at different wind speeds. The overall energy and exergy efficiencies at a wind speed 5 m/s are then found to be 20.2% and 21.2% respectively.     

Perspective on hydrogen energy carrier and its automotive applications

The paper outlines the concept of energy carrier with a particular reference to hydrogen, in view of a more disseminated employment in the field of automotive applications. In particular hydrogen production is analyzed considering the actual state of the art and recent technologies applied in production from the primary sources (fossil fuels, renewable energies, and water electrolysis). Then the problem of hydrogen storage is considered both from technical and economical point of views. In particular, differences between physical and chemical storage are here considered with a particular glance to the most innovative technologies including carbon nanostructures. A review on the main problems in storage and transportation is then shown with a particular attention given to infrastructures costs that perhaps will address particular choices for the technologies of the next future. Automotive applications are called out, accounting the main current technologies and notes on fueling station for hydrogen fed vehicle. The discussion of hydrogen safety in automotive put in evidence the needs for sophisticated sensors, but a comparison with the safety of gasoline and fire risks, evidences that some common incertitudes on hydrogen usage should be overcome. Some other safety issues are introduced in the section of hydrogen transportation. An overview of costs related hydrogen production, storage and transportation is finally given. This aspect is of a capital importance for the future dissemination of the hydrogen energy carrier.     

Technology forecasting and patent strategy of hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies

This study presents the technological S-curves that integrates the Bibliometric and patent analysis into the Logistic growth curve model for hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies and identifies the optimal patent strategy for the fuel cell industry, including PEMFC, SOFC, and DMFC/DAFC. Empirical analysis is via an expert survey and Co-word analysis using the United States Patent and Trademark Office database to obtain useful data. Analytical results demonstrate that the S-curves is a highly effective means of quantifying how technology forecasting of cumulative publication patent number. Analytical results also indicate that technologies for generating and storing hydrogen have not yet reached technological maturity; thus, additional R&D funding is needed to accelerate the development of hydrogen technology. Conversely, fuel cell technologies have reached technological maturity, and related patent strategies include freedom to operate, licensing, and niche inventions. The proposed model can be applied to all high-technology cases, and particularly to new clean technologies. The study concludes by outlining the limitations of the proposed model and directions for further research.