Energy-efficiency supervision systems for energy management in large public buildings: Necessary choice for China

Buildings are important contributors to total energy consumption accounting for around 30% of all energy consumed in China. Of this, around two-fifths are consumed within urban homes, one-fifth within public buildings, and two-fifths within rural area. Government office buildings and large-scale public buildings are the dominant energy consumers in cities but their consumption can be largely cut back through improving efficiency. At present, energy management in the large public sector is a particular priority in China. Firstly, this paper discusses how the large public building is defined, and then energy performance in large public buildings is studied. The paper also describes barriers to improving energy efficiency of large public buildings in China and examines the energy-efficiency policies and programs adopted in United States and European Union. The energy-efficiency supervision (EES) systems developed to improve operation and maintenance practices and promote energy efficiency in large public sector are described. The benefits of the EES systems are finally summarized.     

Structural,geographic, and social factors in urban building energy use: Analysis of aggregated account-level consumption data in a megacity

Residential and commercial buildings comprise approximately forty percent of total energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. Yet, while California spends $1.5 billion annually on energy efficiency programs, limited research has explored how building energy consumption varies within cities, including the social and structural factors that influence electricity and natural gas use. We present results from an analysis of aggregated account-level utility billing data for energy consumption across the over two million properties in Los Angeles County. Results show that consumption in L.A. County varies widely with geography, income, building characteristics, and climate. Several higher-income areas have greater total energy use per building even in cooler climates, while many lower-income regions rank higher for energy use per square-foot. Energy consumption also correlates with building age, which varies widely throughout the region. Our results demonstrate the many complex and interrelated factors that influence urban energy use. While billing data is critical for devising energy efficiency programs that actually realize estimated savings and promote more sustainable cities, opening access to such data presents significant challenges for protecting personal privacy. The presented approach is adaptable and scalable to cities seeking to develop data-driven policies to reduce building energy use.     

Technical and economic performance of residential solar water heating in the United States

This paper examines the regional, technical, and economic performance of residential rooftop solar water heating (SWH) technology in the U.S. It focuses on the application of SWH to consumers in the U.S. currently using electricity for water heating, which currently uses over 120 billion kWh per year. The variation in electrical energy savings due to water heating use, inlet water temperature and solar resource is estimated and applied to determine the regional “break-even” cost of SWH where the life-cycle cost of SWH is equal the life-cycle energy savings. For a typical residential consumer, a SWH system will reduce water heating energy demand by 50–85%, or a savings of 1600–2600 kWh per year. For the largest 1000 electric utilities serving residential customers in the United States as of 2008, this corresponds to an annual electric bill savings range of about $100 to over $300, reflecting the large range in residential electricity prices. This range in electricity prices, along with a variety of incentives programs corresponds to a break-even cost of SWH in the United States varying by more than a factor of five (from less than $2250/system to over $10,000/system excluding Hawaii and Alaska), despite a much smaller variation in the amount of energy saved by the systems (a factor of approximately one and a half). We also consider the relationships between collector area and technical performance, SWH price and solar fraction (percent of daily energy requirements supplied by the SWH system) and examine the key drivers behind break-even costs.     

Home energy use in nine OECD countries, 1960–1980

Government institutions and individuals have responded to fluctuations in energy supply and price with the implementation of policies and the initiation of conservation. While these activities have resulted in noticeable conservation of energy, primarily through behavioural actions, further savings could be achieved through the exchange of information regarding promising policies and technologies. Toward this end, data on residential sector energy use for nine OECD countries (Canada, Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, the UK and the USA) have been collected over the period 1960–1980 and have been analysed using both indicators of energy-use intensity and econometric methods.     

US energy conservation and efficiency policies: Challenges and opportunities

Expanding energy conservation and efficiency in every sector nationwide is one of the most cost-effective instruments for reducing US energy imports, the trade deficit and energy’s environmental impacts. For these reasons, energy conservation and efficiency have been essential elements of US energy policy since the oil embargos and price spikes of the 1970s. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) is the latest federal legislation to expand and strengthen US energy conservation and efficiency policies, programs, and practices. Specifically, EISA and its recent predecessor, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05), contain almost 200 titles with new provisions for energy conservation and efficiency aimed at improvements in vehicle fuel economy. These provisions include efficiency of appliances and lighting; energy savings in residential, commercial, and government buildings; the efficiency of industrial manufacturing plants; and the efficiency of electric power delivery and end-use. These actions have begun to contribute to new federal, state, and local policies, programs, and practices across the US, and expectations are high for increases in the level of energy savings. This paper summarizes the history of US energy conservation and efficiency policies, outlines EISA’s and EPAct05’s key provisions, and considers prospects for the future.     

Energy efficiency outlook in China’s urban buildings sector through 2030

This study uses bottom-up modeling framework in order to quantify potential energy savings and emission reduction impacts from the implementation of energy efficiency programs in the building sector in China. Policies considered include (1) accelerated building codes in residential and commercial buildings, (2) increased penetration of district heat metering and controls, (3) district heating efficiency improvement, (4) building energy efficiency labeling programs and (5) retrofits of existing commercial buildings.Among these programs, we found that the implementation of building codes provide by far the largest savings opportunity, leading to an overall 17% reduction in overall space heating and cooling demand relative to the baseline. Second are energy efficiency labels with 6%, followed by reductions of losses associated with district heating representing 4% reduction and finally, retrofits representing only about a 1% savings.     

A comparative study on the energy policies in Japan and Malaysia in fulfilling their nations’ obligations towards the Kyoto Protocol

Global warming and the associated changes in the world climate pattern have been accepted world wide as the gravest threat to humanity in the 20th century. To mitigate the impacts of global warming, the Kyoto Protocol was established in 1997 with the objective of reducing global greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, in particular carbon dioxide (CO₂), by 5.2% below 1990 levels. Developed nations that ratified the Protocol are committed to GHG reduction targets while developing nations are encouraged to reduce GHG emissions on a voluntary basis. Since most of the GHGs emissions come from the energy sector, energy policy plays an important role in fulfilling the Kyoto Protocol obligations. This year marks the beginning of the commitment period for the 2012 Kyoto Protocol. In this case, it would be worthwhile to compare the energy policies in Malaysia and Japan as these nations move towards fulfilling their obligations towards the Kyoto Protocol; bearing in mind that both countries ratified the Protocol, but that Japan commits a reduction target of 6% while Malaysia bears no obligation. Based on the comparison, recommendations were made on how a developing nation like Malaysia could adopt the policies implemented in Japan to suit local conditions and contribute significantly to GHG reduction.     

The impact of energy efficiency programs on the growth of electricity sales

With increasing concern about carbon dioxide emissions from power generation, high natural gas costs for generating electricity, and rapidly increasing costs of constructing new power plants, energy efficiency programs are being given greater consideration by utilities and regulators. This study reports on a statistical analysis of the relationship between state-level efficiency program effort and growth in electricity sales between 2001 and 2006 in the United States. The higher the utility efficiency program expenditures per capita and the greater the range of other efficiency programs offered, the greater the reduction in the growth of power sales. Application of the portfolio of energy efficiency programs used in the states with most aggressive programs would have reduced the growth in a state's electricity sales by about 60% relative to the case where no efficiency programs were implemented.     

世界各国加快氢能源市场化步伐——记第18届世界氢能大会(WHEC 2010)

2010年5月在德国埃森召开的"第18届世界氢能大会"上,来自美国、德国、日本、中国等国家的代表介绍了各自国家最新的氢能进展。中国科技部部长万钢出席大会并发言指出:中国要制订国家氢能规划,加大对氢能的投入,扩大氢能示范和应用,加强氢能的国际合作。美国能源部Nancy L Garland博士和Michacel Mills介绍了美国氢能的总体情况,指出:目前美国每年生产5000×104m3氢气,拥有氢气管道3000km以上,现有氢燃料电池轿车230多辆,氢燃料电池公共汽车130多辆,加氢站约200座。在燃料电池商业化方面,美国仍存在着技术上和经济性方面的障碍。在2007~2010财政年度,美国通过立法和各类货款、补贴,进一步加大了对氢能的扶持力度,美国能源部多次联合其他机构,召开氢能基础设施研讨会,就降低燃料电池成本、氢能政策、税收、碳税、氢能信息和教育、燃料电池革新方向,以及新的商业模式等进行讨论。目前,美国加州是美国最积极推进氢燃料电池技术与示范的州,该州预计于2016~2018年,其氢燃料电池轿车数量将达到54300辆,并计划进一步发展氢能高速公路。德国国家全资公司NOW公司总经理波霍夫博士等人介绍了德国的氢能进展。主要内容包括:德国准备到2015年,共建造1000座加氢站,将为10×104辆氢燃料电池车提供氢气;德国在氢气来源方面,2020年以前主要来源于副产氢气和天然气制氢,2030年以后主要依靠煤制氢(集合CO2捕集)、风能制氢、生物质能制氢等。日本为了尽快研发、推广燃料电池车,采取了全额投入经费的办法,委托日本产业省(METI)的全资公司VEDO公司负责管理"日本氢能和燃料电池示范项目(JHFC)",该项目的目标之一,就是到2025年,在全日本建立1000座加氢站。     

Energy efficiency in the British housing stock: Energy demand and the Homes Energy Efficiency Database

The UK Government has unveiled an ambitious retrofit programme that seeks significant improvement to the energy efficiency of the housing stock. High quality data on the energy efficiency of buildings and their related energy demand is critical to supporting and targeting investment in energy efficiency. Using existing home improvement programmes over the past 15 years, the UK Government has brought together data on energy efficiency retrofits in approximately 13 million homes into the Homes Energy Efficiency Database (HEED), along with annual metered gas and electricity use for the period of 2004–2007.This paper describes the HEED sample and assesses its representativeness in terms of dwelling characteristics, the energy demand of different energy performance levels using linked gas and electricity meter data, along with an analysis of the impact retrofit measures has on energy demand. Energy savings are shown to be associated with the installation of loft and cavity insulation, and glazing and boiler replacement. The analysis illustrates this source of ‘in-action’ data can be used to provide empirical estimates of impacts of energy efficiency retrofit on energy demand and provides a source of empirical data from which to support the development of national housing energy efficiency retrofit policies.     

State-level benefits of energy efficiency

This paper describes benefits attributable to state-level energy efficiency programs. Nationwide, state-level energy efficiency programs have targeted all sectors of the economy and have employed a wide range of methods to promote energy efficiency. Standard residential and industrial programs typically identify between 20% and 30% energy savings in homes and plants, respectively. Over a 20-year period of time, an average state that aggressively pursues even a limited array of energy efficiency programs can potentially reduce total state energy use by as much as 20%. Well-designed energy efficiency programs can be expected to help overcome numerous barriers to the market penetration of energy efficient technologies and accelerate the market penetration of the technologies. Energy efficiency programs are cost-effective; typical benefit–cost ratios exceed 3:1 and are much higher when non-energy and macroeconomic benefits are included. Indeed, energy efficiency and associated programs and investments can create significant numbers of new jobs and enhance state tax revenues. Several states have incorporated energy efficiency into their economic development programs. It should also be noted that increasing amounts of venture capital are being invested in the energy sector in general and in specific technologies like solar power in particular.     

Green electricity policies in the United States: case study

While there has been interest in promoting the use of renewable energy in electricity production for a number of years in the United States, the market share of non-hydro renewable energy sources in electricity production has remained at about 2 percent over the past decade. The paper reviews the principal energy resources used for electricity production, considers the changing regulatory environment for the electricity industry, and describes government policies that have been used to promote green electricity in the United States, with an emphasis on measures adopted by state governments. Factors influencing the development of green power markets are also discussed, including underlying economic issues, public policy measures, the regulatory environment, external costs, and subsidies. Without significant increases in fossil fuel prices, much more stringent environmental regulations, or significant changes in electricity customer preferences, green electricity markets are likely to develop slowly in the United States.     

Evaluation of China's local enforcement of energy efficiency standards and labeling programs for appliances and equipment

AimsThis paper aims to evaluate local enforcement of China's mandatory appliance and equipment energy efficiency standards and labeling programs, two increasingly important policies for meeting national energy and carbon reduction targets. The expected energy savings of efficiency standards and labels can be fully realized only with strong enforcement to ensure compliance for all products sold. This paper provides comprehensive retrospective evaluation of the methodologies, results, progress and remaining challenges in pilot enforcement projects initiated in the absence of consistent national check-testing focused on energy efficiency.ScopeThis paper's scope is focused on 2006–2009 pilot local check-tests conducted to verify appliance and equipment compliance with China's mandatory energy label and efficiency standards.ConclusionsThis paper finds both improvement and some backsliding in compliance rates over time. Compared to earlier efforts, 2009 check-tests covered a wider regional and product scope but demonstrated greater variation in compliance rates. Labeling display and energy efficiency compliance was generally high across regions and most products, but lower compliance rates were observed in less economically developed regions and for lighting and industrial products. Based on these findings, areas for improvement in local awareness, product sampling methodology, check-testing tools and procedures are identified.     

Should policy-makers allocate funding to vehicle electrification or end-use energy efficiency as a strategy for climate change mitigation and energy reductions? Rethinking electric utilities efficiency programs

In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the United States by an order of magnitude, a portfolio of mitigation strategies is needed. Currently, many utilities pursue energy efficiency programs. We study a case where utilities could choose whether to allocate their energy efficiency budget to either end-use efficiency or vehicle electrification as a means to reduce CO₂ emissions. We build a decision space that displays the conditions under which utilities should pursue either strategy. To build such decision space, assumptions are needed on how consumers respond to electric vehicle incentives, and what would be the baseline vehicle selected by consumers if no incentives were in place. Since these two aspects are highly uncertain, we treat them parametrically: if consumers are replacing a conventional vehicle with a PHEV, utility incentive programs to induce PHEV adoption appear to be cost-effective for a wide range of efficiency program costs and grid emissions factors.     

Empirical estimates of the direct rebound effect: A review

Improvements in energy efficiency make energy services cheaper, and therefore encourage increased consumption of those services. This so-called direct rebound effect offsets the energy savings that may otherwise be achieved. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical and methodological issues relevant to estimating the direct rebound effect and summarises the empirical estimates that are currently available. The paper focuses entirely on household energy services, since this is where most of the evidence lies and points to a number of potential sources of bias that may lead the effect to be overestimated. For household energy services in the OECD, the paper concludes that the direct rebound effect should generally be less than 30%.     

Deconstructing the Rosenfeld curve: Making sense of California's low electricity intensity

Regulatory regimes that have increased household energy efficiency are of widespread interest to policymakers today. A prominent example is the state of California where electricity intensities in the residential sector have stayed near constant since the 1970s in sharp contrast to nationwide trends in the United States. A structural model of residential energy consumption is used to show that the use of energy intensities alone to evaluate the success of California efficiency programs is misleading and glosses over important policy independent factors. We quantify important effects of price, climate conditions and demographic characteristics on energy consumption in California. We also provide evidence of split incentive considerations in residential energy consumption patterns. We conclude that while state policy may have had some effect on efficiency, caution needs to be exercised in using the California example to inform expectations from similar measures in other regions.     

中国能源效率评析

2011年我国按购买力平价计算的单位GDP能耗为日本和欧盟的2.1倍,美国和世界平均值的1.5倍;9个行业19项产品能耗指标加权平均比国际先进水平高21%。2010年,我国物理能源效率为36.1%,比国际先进水平低8个百分点左右。本文对我国能源效率和节能作了评析,提出了政策建议。     

Impact of energy efficiency measures on the economic value of buildings

A main objective of energy policies is to make all levels of the society, from governments to citizen, interested in increasing the energy efficiency of buildings. One of the most important barriers in implementation of energy policies is that the cost of potential energy savings, typically considered being the only financial benefit, does not sufficiently motivate investments. The target is therefore to identify further possible drivers pushing positive reaction according to energy saving action.The paper discusses whether a market-based instrument, capturing the increase of the economic value of energy efficient buildings, can be also used. Methods that quantify the added value due to energy performance, including recommendations on how they can be incorporated in the financial analysis of investments in weatherization, are developed. By applying the proposed methods, the payback period of investments in energy efficiency measures depends on two factors: potential energy savings and the added value to the property. Case studies on some existing condominiums from Romania are analyzed and provide evidence to the research question.The market sensitivity to energy efficiency measures, the possibility of an intangible added value as well as the impact to financial investment decisions is subsequently in the focus.     

Financing energy efficiency in developing countries—lessons learned and remaining challenges

Although energy efficiency implementation is increasingly being recognized by policymakers worldwide as one of the most effective means to mitigating rising energy prices, tackling potential environmental risks, and enhancing energy security, mainstreaming its financing in developing country markets continues to be a challenge. Experience shows that converting cost-effective energy savings potential, particularly the demand-side improvement opportunities across sectors, into investments face many barriers and unforeseen transaction costs. This paper draws upon selected experiences with financing energy efficiency in developing countries to explore the key factors of various programmatic approaches and financing instruments that have been applied successfully for delivering energy efficiency solutions. Through case studies, a diverse range of institutional issues are examined related to the identification, packaging, designing, and monitoring approaches that have been used to catalyze traditional and innovative financing of energy efficiency projects. With adequate liquidity in major developing country markets and availability of modern energy savings technologies, it is often the institutional issues that become a key challenge to address in order to finance and implement robust programs. As further operational experience is gained, increased knowledge sharing can lead to scaling-up of such energy efficiency investments. The paper concludes with some ideas for accelerating implementation.     

Renewable energy alternatives for developed countries

This paper examines renewable energy alternatives in developed countries: environmental mechanisms; future energy alternatives; green electricity marketing and its potential; pricing; and limitations on the eve of open access. It discusses objectives in electricity restructuring; the role of resources planning in forming long range energy environmental policies; feasibility of electricity trading mechanisms; green marketing in the United States and Australia; green energy offers in Canada; and the results of green pricing programs in Europe and the United States. The role of existing and planned mechanisms to achieve environmental benefits in restructured electricity markets are reviewed. Technological and institutional challenges of achieving real, long-term reductions in carbon dioxide and other emissions from the electric sector are discussed. Factors associated with infrastructure turnover together with technology development and deployment are addressed, where attention is given to policies which promote highly integrated and coordinated reductions in emissions. The paper then focuses on the green pool and trends in power marketing where status of competitive markets, green pricing programs for franchise customers, green power products for contestable customers, credibility of green power marketing, and public policy for renewable energy technologies in competitive markets are discussed. It then reviews green energy in Ontario on the eve of open access, and shows there is a market for green energy if customers have a choice