Renewable energy alternatives for developed countries

This paper examines renewable energy alternatives in developed countries: environmental mechanisms; future energy alternatives; green electricity marketing and its potential; pricing; and limitations on the eve of open access. It discusses objectives in electricity restructuring; the role of resources planning in forming long range energy environmental policies; feasibility of electricity trading mechanisms; green marketing in the United States and Australia; green energy offers in Canada; and the results of green pricing programs in Europe and the United States. The role of existing and planned mechanisms to achieve environmental benefits in restructured electricity markets are reviewed. Technological and institutional challenges of achieving real, long-term reductions in carbon dioxide and other emissions from the electric sector are discussed. Factors associated with infrastructure turnover together with technology development and deployment are addressed, where attention is given to policies which promote highly integrated and coordinated reductions in emissions. The paper then focuses on the green pool and trends in power marketing where status of competitive markets, green pricing programs for franchise customers, green power products for contestable customers, credibility of green power marketing, and public policy for renewable energy technologies in competitive markets are discussed. It then reviews green energy in Ontario on the eve of open access, and shows there is a market for green energy if customers have a choice     

The role of public policy in emerging green power markets: an analysis of marketer preferences

Green power marketing has been heralded by some as a means to create a private market for renewable energy that is driven by customer demand for green products. This article challenges the premise — sometimes proffered in debates over green markets — that profitable, sizable, credible markets for green products will evolve naturally without supportive public policies. Relying primarily on surveys and interviews of US green power marketers, the article examines the role of specific regulatory and legislative policies in ‘enabling’ the green market, and searches for those policies that are believed by marketers to be the most conducive or detrimental to the expansion of the green market. We find that marketers: (1) believe that profitable green power markets will only develop if a solid foundation of supportive policies exists; (2) believe that establishing overall price competition and encouraging customer switching are the top priorities; (3) are somewhat leery of government-sponsored or mandated public information programs; and (4) oppose three specific renewable energy policies that are frequently advocated by renewable energy enthusiasts, but that may have negative impacts on the green marketers’ profitability. The stated preferences of green marketers shed light on ways to foster renewables by means of the green market. Because the interests of marketers do not coincide perfectly with those of society, however, this study also recognizes other normative perspectives and highlights policy tensions at the heart of current debates related to green markets. By examining these conflicts, we identify three key policy questions that should direct future research: To what extent should price competition and customer switching be encouraged at the expense of cost shifting? What requirements should be imposed to ensure credibility in green products and marketing? How should the green power market and broader renewable energy policies interact?     

德国绿色电力营销政策

德国的发电燃料结构以煤和核能为主;同时,可再生能源,主要是大型水电也占了一部分,近年来发展最快的可再生能源是风能。德国绿色电力产品分为3类,即纯大型水电、可再生能源电力与热电联产混合产品以及纯可再生能源电力。德国的第一个绿色电价项目出现于上世纪90年代中期,在德国开展了绿色电力营销和认证体系,同时,该国传统上的可再生能源政策更加注重对可再生能源发电的直接支持,而不是对市场的零售端提供激励措施。     

The political economy of international green certificate markets

This paper analyzes the political economy of establishing bilateral trade in green certificate markets as one step towards harmonization of European green electricity support systems. We outline some of the economic principles of an integrated bilateral green certificates market, and then discuss a number of issues that are deemed to be critical for the effectiveness, stability and legitimacy of such a market. By drawing on some of the lessons of the fairly recent intentions to integrate a future green certificate market in Norway with the existing Swedish one, we highlight, exemplify and discuss some critical policy implementation and design issues. These include, for instance, the system's connection to climate policy targets, the role of other support schemes and the definition of what green electricity technologies should be included. Furthermore, the establishment of an international market presumes that the benefits of renewable power (e.g., its impacts on the environment, diversification of the power mix, self-sufficiency, etc.) are approached and valued from an international perspective rather than from a national one, thus implying lesser emphasis on, for instance, employment and regional development impacts. A bilateral green certificate system thus faces a number of important policy challenges, but at the same time it could provide important institutional learning effects that can be useful for future attempts aiming at achieving greater policy integration in the European renewable energy sector.     

The development of a green certificate market

Liberalizing the electricity industry and attempting to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases are the two dominant trends in European energy policy. The last-mentioned issue might require the contribution from renewable energy technologies, but at present most renewables cannot compete on their own with conventional technologies. Thus, it can be expected that if renewables must compete solely on market conditions alone this will slow down or even halt the development of new renewable capacity. One model in which additional payments to renewable technologies are generated is based on the development of a separate green market. In Holland a voluntary green certificate market has existed since the beginning of 1998. In Denmark a comprehensive restructuring of the legislation for the electric power industry has just been completed, including the framework for developing a separate green market for renewable electricity production. The main objectives of introducing this type of electricity market in Denmark is to secure the development of renewable energy technologies (including contributions to greenhouse gas reductions), while at the same time releasing the Government from the (by now) quite heavy burden of subsidising renewable technologies. Finally, a green market will make it possible for these renewable technologies to be partly economically compensated for the environmental benefits, which they generate compared to conventional power production. With the recent Danish legislation as starting point this paper analyzes possible ways to set up a green certificate market, treating as well some of the consequences produced when the market is actually funtioning. The analysis is applicable for all renewable technologies, but special attention is given to wind power.     

A review of international green power markets: recent experience,trends, and market drivers

Green power marketing—the act of differentially selling electricity generated wholly or in part from renewable sources—has emerged in more than a dozen countries around the world. Almost two million customers worldwide buy green power today. This paper reviews green power marketing activity in Australia, Canada, Japan, the US, and in a number of countries in Europe to gain an understanding of consumer demand for electricity generated from renewable sources. It also examines key factors that influence market penetration of green power products, such as product designs, pricing, incentives, marketing strategies, policies, and product certification.     

Additionality of wind energy investments in the U.S. voluntary green power market

In the United States, electricity consumers are told that they can “buy” electricity from renewable energy projects, versus fossil fuel-fired facilities, through participation in voluntary green power markets. The marketing messages communicate to consumers that they are causing additional renewable energy generation and reducing emissions through their participation and premium payments for a green label. Using a spatial financial model and a database of registered Green-e wind power facilities, the analysis in this paper shows that the voluntary Renewable Energy Certificate (REC) market has a negligible influence on the economic feasibility of these facilities. Nevertheless, voluntary green power marketers at least implicitly claim that buying their products creates additional renewable energy. This study indicates the contrary. Participants in U.S. voluntary green power markets associated with wind power, therefore, appear to be receiving misleading marketing messages regarding the effect of their participation. In the process of completing this analysis, a potentially relevant factor in explaining investor behavior was identified: the potential for the overlap of voluntary REC markets with compliance REC markets that supply utilities need to meet their obligations of Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (RPS). The majority of state RPS rules allow for regional or even national sourcing of RECs, meaning that projects are generally eligible to provide compliance RECs to utilities not only in their home states, but in several other states.     

绿色电力营销 可再生能源发展的市场动力

本文从分析中国可再生能源发展的障碍入手,指出现有电力销售机制及电价形成机制是可再生电力发展的瓶颈,也使得目前中国旨在促进可再生能源扩大规模、降低成本的政策无法得到有效的实施。根据迈克尔·波特的竞争战略理论,采用绿色电力营销的标歧立异战略,能帮助可再生能源发电产业在一定细分市场内建立相对于传统电力的竞争优势,同时也可克服现有电力销售机制的局限。一方面可再生电力与普通电力的差价由自愿购买的用户承担,避免每上一个可再生能源项目就需要提高全网电价的做法,是对现有体制的创新,同时也大大降低交易成本;另一方面差价取决于用户的支付意愿,差价越低,用户的支付意愿越高,市场越大;差价越高,支付意愿越低,市场越小,有利于形成竞争局面,促使可再生能源发电厂商降低发电成本。本文建议应当鼓励北京、上海等大城市的电力公司率先启动绿色电力营销计划,并为绿色电力营销创造良好的市场环境。     

中国可再生能源发展进入阶段转换期

本世纪前10年,中国可再生能源采取开放型发展模式,凭借风电产业"以市场换技术"的战略及光伏产业"两头在外"的发展模式,加之国内政策的大力扶持,连续3年保持全球风电第一大国地位,2011年中国光伏电池产量占到全球产量的56.5%,光伏组件出口量占当年全球新增光伏装机容量的54.6%。然而自2010年末起,中国可再生能源产业频繁遭遇国外"双反"制裁,正面临"保护难"和"出口难"的两难困境,"以市场换技术"战略难以为继,"两头在外"的发展模式也走到了尽头。开放式的发展模式已不适合产业的进一步发展,中国可再生能源产业开始步入主要依靠国内市场、依靠自主创新的内向化发展新阶段。中国的可再生能源市场前景广阔,国内市场足以支撑产业的发展。虽然国外企业在技术水平方面领先于中国企业,但由于技术边界效应的存在,中国企业在国内市场上还是有优势的。新阶段中国的产业政策应该转向大力开发国内市场,将补贴产品的生产和贸易环节改为补贴生产要素,并加大对可再生能源消费端的补贴。同时,要加快提升企业自主创新能力和产业技术水平。     

德国《可再生能源法》2014年最新改革解析及启示

德国政府计划于2014年对可再生能源支持政策进行全面改革,此次改革仍保留了《可再生能源法2012》的整体架构,重点是要控制非水电可再生能源的补贴成本。采取的主要措施包括控制风电、光伏和生物质发电年度装机容量增长目标,补贴重点侧重更加经济有效的可再生能源类型(即陆上风电和光伏),上网电价递减率与年度新增装机容量挂钩的灵活限额机制,调整上网电价递减周期等。同时通过直接营销和拍卖等市场机制,让可再生能源更加融入市场。这标志着德国可再生能源的发展进入到引导投资和重点扶持的新阶段。建议借鉴德国《可再生能源法》完善我国可再生能源支持政策,包括针对不同可再生能源的技术特点制定完善的、自适应的上网电价模型,顺应技术发展规律实行"老机老电价、新机新电价"的电价调整机制,不断提高补贴手段的市场化和有效性等。     

Green electricity policies in the Netherlands: an analysis of policy decisions

Over the last decades, fundamental changes can be observed in both market conditions and the national policy framework for green electricity in the Netherlands. The Dutch Government has regularly intervened in markets, demonstrating fundamental shifts in policy and approach. This study aims to analyse the developments in renewable energy policy making in the Netherlands. It assesses changes in the choice of policy instruments and target groups, the role of stakeholders, and offers explanations behind policy successes and failures. Dutch green electricity policy over the last decade can be characterised roughly by three phases: in the early 1990s, the government negotiated voluntary agreements with the energy distribution sector on targets for green electricity sales, which were never met. In the second half of the 1990s, a regulatory energy tax was introduced, from which customers of green electricity were exempt. This led to a substantial increase in demand, which was largely met by green electricity imports, and did not lead to additional domestic renewable energy capacity. Finally, a change in policy has taken place recently (2003) shifting the focus from promotion of demand to the promotion of supply through a system of regulated feed-in tariffs. Despite the renewable energy policies, growth of the renewable energy market in the Netherlands has been small and targets have not been fully met. The Dutch government has not yet succeeded in substantially reducing market uncertainties and in building confidence among market parties, because the policies have not been stable and policy objectives have frequently been partly ambiguous. In addition, the influence of stakeholders in renewable energy policy making has been small which has the early acceptance and implementation of alternative policies.     

Solar energy: Markets, economics and policies

Solar energy has experienced phenomenal growth in recent years due to both technological improvements resulting in cost reductions and government policies supportive of renewable energy development and utilization. This study analyzes the technical, economic and policy aspects of solar energy development and deployment. While the cost of solar energy has declined rapidly in the recent past, it still remains much higher than the cost of conventional energy technologies. Like other renewable energy technologies, solar energy benefits from fiscal and regulatory incentives, including tax credits and exemptions, feed-in-tariff, preferential interest rates, renewable portfolio standards and voluntary green power programs in many countries. The emerging carbon credit markets are expected to provide additional incentives to solar energy deployment; however, the scale of incentives provided by the existing carbon market instruments, such as, the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol is limited. Despite the huge technical potential, the development and large scale deployment of solar energy technologies world-wide still has to overcome a number of technical, financial, regulatory and institutional barriers. The continuation of policy supports might be necessary for several decades to maintain and enhance the growth of solar energy in both developed and developing countries.     

NGOs and green electricity

Electricity from renewable energy sources is by definition the environmental “green” product. Sales of green power are usually supported by marketing campaign images of a melting ice cap, polar bears in danger and other environmental catastrophes. Greenprices this month takes a closer look at NGOs, organisations whose task is to raise the environmental awareness of the public, and to try to understand how they position themselves today on the green electricity market. There are to date three ways by which non-governmental organisations can play a role on the market for electricity from renewable energy sources: promoting, selling and labelling green electricity.     

英国可再生能源义务政策最新进展及对我国的启示

从90年代的非化石燃料义务政策到2002年以来的可再生能源义务政策,英国一直致力于通过市场配额机制推动可再生能源发展。但由于政策机制设计复杂,不确定性较大,以及罚金返还导致的市场投机等问题,无法拉动足够投资保障可再生能源快速发展。2011年,结合碳减排目标,英国政府计划推出一揽子电力市场改革方案(EMR),其重点之一是可再生能源义务逐步向差价合约固定电价政策转移。本文通过综述英国可再生能源义务政策演变历程,解析评价可再生能源证书市场运行机制和实施效果,并介绍英国电力市场改革方向,以及对我国的启示。     

美国绿色电力市场的发展

绿色电力在美国发展迅速,到2003年3月美国在电力市场中开展绿色价格项目的电力公司已达300家以上。随着电力零售市场的开放,美国在绿色电力推广过程中应用绿色电力价格,为用户提供了机会去支持电力公司加大可再生能源发展的基金。在绿色电力价格中通过用户参与、NGO协调及绿色电力认证等形式使得美国的绿色电力营销取得良好效果。     

Current situation and future projection of marine renewable energy in China

The rapid development of China's economy cannot be separated from the massive consumption of fossil fuel. However, potential risks such as the extreme shortage of fossil fuel and the resulting environmental problems are becoming more and more prominent. As a substitution for fossil fuel, renewable energy is playing an increasingly important role in the energy structure adjustment. As a special type of renewable energy, marine renewable energy has been paid much attention by China's government and scientific researchers because of its properties such as cleanness, environmental protection and large reserves. Under the background of energy structure adjustment and electricity market reform in China, the marine renewable energy power market has a bright future. Through querying an amount of literature and information, this paper makes a strategic analysis based on the understanding of the resource endowment, the current industrial status, and policy environment. Then, the PEST‐SWOT strategy analysis model was adopted to analyze the internalities (strengths and weaknesses) and the externalities (opportunities and threats) of the factors affecting the development of marine renewable energy power industry. Then, some countermeasures from the four angles of strategic positioning, institutional arrangement, environmental education, and technical support are proposed to address the weaknesses and threats. Through the research, some conclusions and policy proposals are finally put forward to promote the sustainable development of the industry.     

Green electricity policies in the United States: case study

While there has been interest in promoting the use of renewable energy in electricity production for a number of years in the United States, the market share of non-hydro renewable energy sources in electricity production has remained at about 2 percent over the past decade. The paper reviews the principal energy resources used for electricity production, considers the changing regulatory environment for the electricity industry, and describes government policies that have been used to promote green electricity in the United States, with an emphasis on measures adopted by state governments. Factors influencing the development of green power markets are also discussed, including underlying economic issues, public policy measures, the regulatory environment, external costs, and subsidies. Without significant increases in fossil fuel prices, much more stringent environmental regulations, or significant changes in electricity customer preferences, green electricity markets are likely to develop slowly in the United States.     

A regulatory policy to promote renewable energy consumption in China: Review and future evolutionary path

Renewable energy has become the world's strategic choice to solve environmental pollution, address the energy crisis and achieve social sustainable development. The establishment of a regulatory system coincides with the development stage of renewable energy and electricity market operation is significant in standardizing the market competition and guaranteeing healthy development of renewable energy in China. This paper analyses the current situation of renewable energy development and the existing renewable energy regulation system in China, pointing out that the main problems restricting renewable energy development are institutional mechanisms and market factors. The existing regulatory mechanisms also have deficiencies, such as the inclination towards economic regulation and the lack of a market adjustment mechanism. This paper proposes that China should comprehensively consider the renewable energy development stage, electricity market trading mechanisms and other factors in electricity regulatory requirements when policy making, actively exploring a new renewable energy regulation model adapted to different development phases. In addition, this paper suggests China's regulatory policy path based on the forecasting of renewable energy developing models.     

调整政策 促进可再生能源发展

步入21世纪,可持续发展战略实施力度加大。面对环境和国内外市场的严峻挑战,我国可再生能源如何发展,这需要进行政策性的战略调整。从思路上要改变传统观念,把新能源和可再生能源作为21世纪中叶我国的主要接续能源,将其列入国民经济发展的五年计划和中长期规划中,促其产业化和本地化。适当时机启动新能源和可再生能源产业化工程。改变风能开发的地区优先顺序,即选择资源条件较好,但经济发达或比较发达的地区,以政府的强制性法规,推行可再生能源发电配额制。在新的电价机制中,给上网售电的风能等绿色电力予以环保折扣。     

Quality uncertainty and the market for renewable energy: Evidence from German consumers

Consumers can choose from a wide range of electricity supply contracts, including green power options. Electricity produced from renewable energy involves information asymmetries. With a sample of more than 2,000 German electricity consumers, we tested the proposition of a “lemon market” for renewable energy in a discrete choice experiment. Specifically, we found that, compared to investor-owned firms, additional willingness-to-pay for renewable energy is approximately double when offered by cooperatives or municipally-owned electricity utilities. Consumers who are experienced with switching suppliers have an additional willingness-to-pay of one Eurocent per kilowatt hour for cooperatives and two Eurocents for public enterprises. The results demonstrate that organizational transformation in dynamically-changing electricity markets is not only driven by political initiatives but also by consumers' choices on the market. Public policy may reduce information asymmetries by promoting government labeling of green energy products.