Simulation to analyze operation strategy of combined cooling and power system using a high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell for data centers

With the development of the information and communication technology (ICT) industry, the energy consumption of data centers is continuously increasing. High-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells (HT-PEFC) have a high operating temperature of 120 °C or higher; thus, the heat generated from fuel cells stack is effectively used as a heat source for a absorption refrigerator (AR) to generate cooling. The combined cooling and power (CCP) system is proposed to satisfy the energy demand of data centers that require both power and cooling. The CCP system comprises an HT-PEFC and a double-effect AR that recovers the wasted heat of the fuel cell stack. As a result of analyzing the electrical and cooling efficiency of the CCP system according to the fuel cell operating conditions, the overall efficiency increased to 95%, which was significantly higher than the existing system. Based on the simulation of the developed model, coefficient of performance (COP) and cooling capacity depending on the temperature changes of chilled water and cooling water were calculated within the stack temperature range of 150–180 °C, and the COP changed from 1.1 to 1.58 depending on the conditions. The developed CCP system model can be used to plan strategies for flexible fuel cell operation according to the power and cooling demands required in the data center.     

1kW家用SOFC-CHP系统建模及性能分析

构建一个以天然气为燃料的SOFC-CHP系统,推导SOFC传热传质及电化学方程,建立各个组件的数学模型,编写计算程序,对发电功率为1kW的家用SOFC-CHP系统在设计工况下进行性能模拟并探讨不同系统参数对性能的影响。计算结果表明:在设计工况下,系统热电联供效率远高于电池单独发电的效率;此外,随着燃料入口流量的增大,系统发电功率存在一个最大值,燃料利用率与发电效率不断减小,系统热电联供效率不断增大,SOFC的温度梯度分布则越来越平缓;同时发现降低过量空气系数可以提高该CHP系统的性能。     

Thermal integration of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell with recuperative organic rankine cycle

The increased usage of fossil fuels in today's world is leading to an energy crisis and is having a catastrophic impact on our surroundings. There is an immediate need for the development of new, clean and renewable sources of energy especially to power the fuel driven vehicles to decrease the level of carbon footprint around the world. Fuel cells continue to produce power by undergoing a chemical process unlike conventional combustion technology to convert hydrogen-rich fuel into electricity as long as a fuel source is provided and need not be periodically recharged like batteries. The individual fuel cells can be coupled or compiled together to form stacks that can be combined into larger systems and can be scaled based on the requirement. Fuel cell systems have numerous applications from combustion engine replacements for electric vehicles and portable systems for recharging batteries of several devices to large-scale, multi-megawatt installations providing electricity directly to the utility grid. They vary greatly in their size and power output produced. In the present study, thermal integration of Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) with Recuperative Organic Rankine Cycle (RORC) is analyzed. The PEMFC has a higher efficiency when compared to conventional energy conversion devices ranging between 40 and 60% and can also be maximized by using regeneration techniques. High temperature PEMFCs also release heat at a useful temperature of 423 K which can further be utilized to extract useful work to improve the overall efficiency of the fuel cell. A further study and analysis of the various processes of thermal regeneration techniques to improve the efficiency of a fuel cell is carried out.     

Design and evaluation of hybrid propulsion ship powered by fuel cell and bottoming cycle

Fuel cells are a promising power source in the electric propulsion systems for zero-emission vessels. The electric efficiency of fuel cells can be increased to 55% practically, but significant amounts of remaining energy from the electrochemical reaction are wasted as heat. This article proposes a hybrid propulsion system for ships that utilizes both the electric energy and thermal energy generated by fuel cells. The electric power capacity of fuel cells and the steam generation capacity of recovered heat from fuel cell systems are calculated, and then the propulsion power of the hybrid system is simulated by MATLAB Simulink. The overall energy efficiency of the proposed ship propulsion system is compared with that of conventional systems by comparing fuel consumption rate. Simulation results indicate that the proposed hybrid propulsion system can increase energy efficiency by 22.5% by additional utilization of the recovered heat from fuel cells.     

Harvesting of PEM fuel cell heat energy for a thermal engine in an underwater glider

The heat generated by a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is generally removed from the cell by a cooling system. Combining heat energy and electricity in a PEMFC is highly desirable to achieve higher fuel efficiency. This paper describes the design of a new power system that combines the heat energy and electricity in a miniature PEMFC to improve the overall power efficiency in an underwater glider. The system makes use of the available heat energy for navigational power of the underwater glider while the electricity generated by the miniature PEMFC is used for the glider's sensors and control system. Experimental results show that the performance of the thermal engine can be obviously improved due to the high quality heat from the PEMFC compared with the ocean environmental thermal energy. Moreover, the overall fuel efficiency can be increased from 17 to 25% at different electric power levels by harvesting the PEMFC heat energy for an integrated fuel cell and thermal engine system in the underwater glider.     

An experimental investigation of a PEM fuel cell to supply both heat and power in a solar-hydrogen RAPS system

The potential for both heat and power extraction from a PEM fuel cell is investigated experimentally and using computer simulation to improve the economics of a solar-hydrogen system supplying energy to a remote household. The overall average energy efficiency of the fuel cell was measured to be about 70% by utilizing the heat generated for domestic water heating, compared to only 35-50% for electricity generation alone. The corresponding round-trip energy efficiency of the hydrogen storage sub-system (electrolyzer, storage tank, and fuel cell) was raised from about 34% in a power-only application to about 50% in combined heat and power (CHP) mode. The economic benefit of using the fuel cell heat for boosting an LPG hot water system over a 30-year assessment period is estimated to be equivalent to about 15% of the total capital cost of the solar-hydrogen system. The stoichiometry of the input air, and the fuel cell operating temperature, were found to influence significantly the overall performance of the solar-hydrogen CHP system.     

Design of a combined heat,hydrogen, and power plant from university campus waste streams

This paper presents analysis of a combined heat, hydrogen, and power (CHHP) plant for waste-to-energy conversion in response to the 2012 Hydrogen Student Design Contest. Our team designed the CHHP plant centered on a molten carbonate fuel cell (Fuel Cell Energy DFC-1500) fueled by syngas derived primarily from an oxygen-fed municipal waste gasifier. Catalytic methanation and supplemental utility natural gas increase the fuel methane content to meet the DFC-1500 fueling requirements for maintaining stack thermal energy balance. Internal reforming converts excess fuel from the fuel cell to an H₂-rich stream, which is purified downstream in a pressure-swing adsorption system. The separated H₂ (1000 kg per day) is compressed for storage to provide fuel for a campus fleet of PEM fuel cell buses. The system provides more than 1.1 MWe for the campus grid with approximately 20% of the fuel cell power used for H₂ compression and running the plant. Heat recovery steam generators provide steam for the methanation reactor and 0.4 MW of thermal energy for district heating or steam turbine-driven chillers. Cost analysis indicates that the system requires incentives for economic viability with current estimated operating costs, but advances to reduce capital expenses of comparable urban waste-driven CHHP systems can make them attractive for future implementation.     

Hybrid power generation system of solar energy and fuel cells

This paper introduces the methods of integration of solar energy and low‐temperature solid oxide fuel cells. On the one hand, we design the system that integrates the solar photovoltaic cells and fuel cells. On the other hand, solar energy is concentrated to heat up the fuel cell and supply the working temperature at hundreds Celsius degrees by Fresnel lens. Then the fuel conversion efficiency is increased because of gain from the solar energy. Moreover, integration of solar thermal energy power system with the fuel is a good method for resolving the instability of solar energy. CHP (combined heat and power) is another aspect to enhance the design hybrid system overall efficiency. Finally, we present a novel device but built on different scientific principle. It can convert solar energy and chemical energy of fuel to electric energy simultaneously within the same device to integrated solar cell and fuel cell from the device level. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parametric analysis of a hybrid power system using organic Rankine cycle to recover waste heat from proton exchange membrane fuel cell

Using fuel cell systems for distributed generation (DG) applications represents a meaningful candidate to conventional plants due to their high power density and the heat recovery potential during the electrochemical reaction. A hybrid power system consisting of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell stack and an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is proposed to utilize the waste heat generated from PEM fuel cell. The system performance is evaluated by the steady-state mathematical models and thermodynamic laws. Meanwhile, a parametric analysis is also carried out to investigate the effects of some key parameters on the system performance, including the fuel flow rate, PEM fuel cell operating pressure, turbine inlet pressure and turbine backpressure. Results show that the electrical efficiency of the hybrid system combined by PEM fuel cell stack and ORC can be improved by about 5% compared to that of the single PEM fuel cell stack without ORC, and it is also indicated that the high fuel flow rate can reduce the PEM fuel cell electrical efficiency and overall electrical efficiency. Moreover, with an increased fuel cell operating pressure, both PEM fuel cell electrical efficiency and overall electrical efficiency firstly increase, and then decrease. Turbine inlet pressure and backpressure also have effects on the performance of the hybrid power system.     

Improvement of proton exchange membrane fuel cell overall efficiency by integrating heat-to-electricity conversion

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have shown to be well suited for distributed power generation due to their excellent performance. However, a PEMFC produces a considerable amount of heat in the process of electrochemical reaction. It is desirable to use thermal energy for electricity generation in addition to heating applications. Based on the operating characteristics of a PEMFC, an advanced thermal energy conversion system using “ocean thermal energy conversion” (OTEC) technology is applied to exploit the thermal energy of the PEMFC for electricity generation. Through this combination of technology, this unique PEMFC power plant not only achieves the combined heat and power efficiency, but also adequately utilizes heat to generate more valuable electricity. Exergy analysis illustrates the improvement of overall efficiency and energy flow distribution in the power plant. Analytical results show that the overall efficiency of the PEMFC is increased by 0.4-2.3% due to the thermal energy conversion (TEC) system. It is also evident that the PEMFC should operate within the optimal load range by balancing the design parameters of the PEMFC and of the TEC system.     

A parabolic dish/AMTEC solar thermal power system and its performance evaluation

This paper proposes a parabolic dish/AMTEC solar thermal power system and evaluates its overall thermal–electric conversion performance. The system is a combined system in which a parabolic dish solar collector is cascaded with an alkali metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC) through a coupling heat exchanger. A separate type heat-pipe receiver is selected to isothermally transfer the solar energy from the collector to the AMTEC. To assess the system’s overall thermal–electric conversion performance, a theoretical analysis has been undertaken in conjunction with a parametric investigation by varying relevant parameters, i.e., the average operating temperature and performance parameters associate with the dish collector and the AMTEC. Results show that the overall conversion efficiency of parabolic dish/AMTEC system could reach up to 20.6% with a power output of 18.54 kW corresponding to an operating temperature of 1280 K. Moreover, it is found that the optimal condenser temperature, corresponding to the maximum overall efficiency, is around 600 K. This study indicates that the parabolic dish/AMTEC solar power system exhibits a great potential and competitiveness over other solar dish/engine systems, and the proposed system is a viable solar thermal power system.     

Optimization and efficiency analysis of methanol SOFC-PEMFC hybrid system

In order to improve the power generation efficiency of fuel cell systems employing liquid fuels, a hybrid system consisting of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is proposed. Utilize the high temperature heat generated by SOFC to reform as much methanol as possible to improve the overall energy efficiency of the system. When SOFC has a stable output of 100 kW, the amount of hydrogen after reforming is changed by changing the methanol flow rate. Three hybrid systems are proposed to compare and select the best system process suitable for different situations. The results show that the combined combustion system has the highest power generation, which can reach 350 kW and the total electrical efficiency is 57%. When the power of the tail gas preheating system is 160 kW, the electrical efficiency can reach 75%. The PEM water preheating system has the most balanced performance, with the electric power of 300 kW and the efficiency of 66%.     

Variable structure battery-based fuel cell hybrid power system and its incremental fuzzy logic energy management strategy

A hybrid power system consists of a fuel cell and an energy storage device like a battery and/or a supercapacitor possessing high energy and power density that beneficially drives electric vehicle motor. The structures of the fuel cell-based power system are complicated and costly, and in energy management strategies (EMSs), the fuel cell's characteristics are usually neglected. In this study, a variable structure battery (VSB) scheme is proposed to enhance the hybrid power system, and an incremental fuzzy logic method is developed by considering the efficiency and power change rate of fuel cell to balance the power system load. The principle of VSB is firstly introduced and validated by discharge and charge experiments. Subsequently, parameters matching of the fuel cell hybrid power system according to the proposed VSB are designed and modeled. To protect the fuel cell as well as ensure the efficiency, a fuzzy logic EMS is formulated via setting the fuel cell operating in a high efficiency and generating an incremental power output within the affordable power slope. The comparison between a traditional deterministic rules-based EMS and the designed fuzzy logic was implemented by numerical simulation in three different operation conditions: NEDC, UDDS, and user-defined driving cycle. The results indicated that the incremental fuzzy logic EMS smoothed the fuel cell power and kept the high efficiency. The proposed VSB and incremental fuzzy logic EMS may have a potential application in fuel cell vehicles.     

Load-Following Strategies for Evolution of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Into Model Citizens of the Grid

Proper converter design can allow solid oxide fuel cells operated as distributed generators to mutually benefit both the load and the electric utility during steady-state conditions, but dynamic load variations still present challenges. Unlike standard synchronous generators, fuel cells lack rotating inertia and their output power ramp rate is limited by design. Two strategies are herein investigated to mitigate the impact of a large load perturbation on the electric utility grid: 1) external use of ultracapacitor electrical storage connected through a dc–dc converter and 2) internal reduction of steady-state fuel utilization in the fuel cell to enable faster response to output power perturbations. Both strategies successfully eliminate the impact of a load perturbation on the utility grid. The external ultracapacitor strategy requires more capital investment while the internal fuel utilization strategy requires higher fuel use. This success implies that there is substantial flexibility for designing load-following fuel cell systems that are model citizens.      

Thermodynamic analysis of a combined PV/T–fuel cell system for power,heat, fresh water and hydrogen production

A hybrid renewable energy system is proposed and analyzed for electricity, heated air, purified water and hydrogen production. Energy, exergy and economic analyses are performed to analyze and determine the performance of the system under different operating conditions. The photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) system produces heat and electricity for residential applications. Excess power is used to operate electrolyser which produces hydrogen to be fed directly to a fuel cell. Fuel cell is operated during high power demand, and it produces electricity, heat and water for residential applications. The water produced as a by-product by the fuel cell is used for drinking water supply. The parametric studies are conducted to determine the efficiencies of the system with and without fuel cell network for hot air, power and purified water. When fuel cell heat is used, the overall system efficiency increases to 5.65% for energy and 19.8% for exergy. Up to 80 L of drinkable water can be collected from the fuel cell when operated for extended periods. The present study confirms a significant economic gain when fuel cell heat and water are utilized as useful outputs.     

Evaluation of system configurations for solid oxide fuel cell-based micro-combined heat and power generators in residential applications

The evaluation of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) combined heat and power (CHP) system configurations for application in residential dwellings is explored through modeling and simulation of cell-stacks including the balance-of-plant equipment. Five different SOFC system designs are evaluated in terms of their energetic performance and suitability for meeting residential thermal-to-electric ratios. Effective system concepts and key performance parameters are identified. The SOFC stack performance is based on anode-supported planar geometry. A cell model is scaled-up to predict voltage–current performance characteristics when served with either hydrogen or methane fuel gas sources. System comparisons for both fuel types are made in terms of first and second law efficiencies. The results indicate that maximum efficiency is achieved when cathode and anode gas recirculation is used along with internal reforming of methane. System electric efficiencies of 40% HHV (45% LHV) and combined heat and power efficiencies of 79% (88% LHV) are described. The amount of heat loss from small-scale SOFC systems is included in the analyses and can have an adverse impact on CHP efficiency. Performance comparisons of hydrogen-fueled versus methane-fueled SOFC systems are also given. The comparisons indicate that hydrogen-based SOFC systems do not offer efficiency performance advantages over methane-fueled SOFC systems. Sensitivity of this result to fuel cell operating parameter selection demonstrates that the magnitude of the efficiency advantage of methane-fueled SOFC systems over hydrogen-fueled ones can be as high as 6%.     

固体氧化物燃料电池与燃气轮机联合发电系统模拟研究

固体氧化物燃料电池(SOFC)是一种高效低污染的新型能源。建立了以天然气为燃料的固体氧化物燃料电池和燃气轮机(GT)联合发电系统的计算模型,并对具体系统进行计算。结果表明：SOFC与GT组戍的联合发电系统,发电效率可达68％(LHV);加上利用的余热,整个系统的能量利用率可以超过80％。文中还分析了SOFC的工作压力、电流密度等参数对系统性能的影响,提高工作压力,可以增加电池发电量,提高系统的发电效率;而电流密度的增大将使SOFC及整个系统的发电量降低。     

Fuel consumption analysis of a residential cogeneration system using a solid oxide fuel cell with regulation of heat to power ratio

Solid oxide fuel cells are suitable for heat and power cogeneration systems for their high electric efficiency and heat to power output ratio. Although commercial solid oxide fuel cells use heat from the exhaust to obtain hydrogen through natural gas reformation, recent progress in hydrogen generation technologies allows us to use pure hydrogen instead of natural gas, and utilize the exhaust heat for other purposes. A residential cogeneration system using a solid oxide fuel cell is proposed in this study, where the heat to power output ratio is varied to match the electric and hot water demands of a residence in Japan. Seasonal fuel consumption of the system is calculated and compared against a similar system without hydrogen addition, and to the conventional system. The proposed system shows a considerable reduction in fuel consumption, while almost reaching complete independence from the power grid.     

Development of an experimental test rig for cogeneration based on a Stirling engine and a biofuel burner

A system consisting of a last-generation Stirling engine (SE) and a fuel burner for distributed power generation has been developed and experimentally investigated. The heat generated by the combustion of two liquid fuels, a standard Diesel fuel and a rapeseed oil, is used as a heat source for the SE, that converts part of the thermal energy into mechanical and then electric energy. The hot head of the SE is kept in direct contact with the flame generated by the burner. The burner operating parameters, designed for Diesel fuel, were changed to make it possible to burn vegetable oils, not suitable for internal combustion engines. The possibility of adopting different configurations of the combustion chamber was taken into account to increase the system efficiency. The preliminary configurations adopted allowed to operate this integrated system, obtaining an electric power up to 4.4 kW_el with a net efficiency of 11.6%.     

Techno-economic evaluation of medium scale power to hydrogen to combined heat and power generation systems

The European Hydrogen Strategy and the new « Fit for 55 » package indicate the urgent need for the alignment of policy with the European Green Deal and European Union (EU) climate law for the decarbonization of the energy system and the use of hydrogen towards 2030 and 2050. The increasing carbon prices in EU Emission Trading System (ETS) as well as the lack of dispatchable thermal power generation as part of the Coal exit are expected to enhance the role of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) in the future energy system. In the present work, the use of renewable hydrogen for the decarbonization of CHP plants is investigated for various fossil fuel substitution ratios and the impact of the overall efficiency, the reduction of direct emissions and the carbon footprint of heat and power generation are reported. The analysis provides insights on efficient and decarbonized cogeneration linking the power with the heat sector via renewable hydrogen production and use. The levelized cost of hydrogen production as well as the levelized cost of electricity in the power to hydrogen to combined heat and power system are analyzed for various natural gas substitution scenarios as well as current and future projections of EU ETS carbon prices.