Synthesis of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 as a cathode material for lithium battery by the rheological phase method

LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ is prepared by a rheological phase method. Homogeneous precursor derived from this method is calcined at 800 °C for 20 h in air, which results in the impressive differences in the morphology properties and electrochemical behaviors of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ in contrast to that obtained by a solid-state method. The microscopic structural features of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ are investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD). The electrochemical properties of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ are carried out by charge–discharge cycling test. All experiments show that the microscopic structural features and the morphology properties are deeply related with the electrochemical performances. The obtained results suggest that the rheological phase method may become an effective route to prepare LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode materials for lithium battery.     

Effect of Ag additive on the performance of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode material for lithium ion battery

The LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂/Ag composite used for cathode material of lithium ion battery was prepared by thermal decomposition of AgNO₃ added to commercial LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ powders to improve the electrochemical performance of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂. Structure and morphology analysis showed that Ag particles were dispersed on the surface of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ instead of entering the crystal structure. The results of charge–discharge tests showed that Ag additive could improve the cycle performance and high-rate discharge capability of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂. Extended analysis indicated that Ag was unstable in the commercial electrolyte at high potential. The improved electrochemical performance caused by Ag additive was associated not only with the enhancement of electrical conductivity of the material and the lower polarization of the cell, but also with the increased “c” parameter of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ after repeated charge/discharge cycles and the compact and protective SEI layer formed on the surface of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂.     

Study of the surface modification of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode material for lithium ion battery

The surface of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ (LNMCO) particles has been studied for material synthesized at 900 °C by a two-step process from a mixture of LiOH·H₂O and metal oxalate [(Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3)C₂O₄] obtained by co-precipitation. Samples have been characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), Raman scattering (RS) spectroscopy, and magnetic measurements. We have investigated the effect of the heat treatment of particles at 600 °C with organic substances such as sucrose and starch. HRTEM images and RS spectra indicate that the surface of particles has been modified. The annealing does not lead to any carbon coating but it leads to the crystallization of the thin disordered layer on the surface of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂. The beneficial effect has been tested on the electrochemical properties of the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode materials. The capacity at 10C-rate is enhanced by 20% for post-treated LNMCO particles at 600 °C for half-an-hour.     

Solution combustion synthesis of layered LiNi0.5Mn0.5O2 and its characterization as cathode material for lithium-ion cells

LiNi_0.5Mn_0.5O₂, a promising cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, is synthesized by a novel solution-combustion procedure using acenaphthene as a fuel. The powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the product shows a hexagonal cell with a = 2.8955 Å and c = 14.1484 Å. Electron microscopy investigations indicate that the particles are of sub-micrometer size. The product delivers an initial discharge capacity of 161 mAh g⁻¹ between 2.5 and 4.6 V at a 0.1 C rate and could be subjected to more than 50 cycles. The electrochemical activity is corroborated with cyclic voltammetric (CV) and electrochemical impedance data. The preparative procedure presents advantages such as a low cation mixing, sub-micron particles and phase purity.     

Investigation of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode particles after 300 discharge/charge cycling in a lithium-ion battery by analytical TEM

Using analytical transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques reveal a zigzag layer on surface of the cycled particles of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode after 300 discharge/charge cycles. The Ni, Mn content in the zigzag layer of the cycled particle has decreased rapidly from interior to edge of the zigzag layer of the cycled particles. The structure of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ oxide was gradually destructed from hexagonal cell with P3₁12 at interior region to fcc lattice of α-NaFeO₂ at edge of the zigzag layer of the cycled particles. These experimental data provide the compositional and structural origins of the capacity decrease in the Li-ion battery.     

Cycle life improvement of ZrO2-coated spherical LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode material for lithium ion batteries

A modified synthesis process was developed based on co-precipitation method followed by spray drying process. In this process, a spherical shaped (Co_1/3Ni_1/3Mn_1/3)(OH)₂ precursor was synthesized by co-precipitation and pre-heated at 500 °C to form a high structural stability spinel (CoNiMn)O₄ to maintain its shape for further processing. The spherical LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ was then prepared by spray drying process using spherical spinel (CoNiMn)O₄. LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ powders were then modified by coating their surface with a uniform and nano-sized layer of ZrO₂. The ZrO₂-coated LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ material exhibited an improved rate capability and cycling stability under a high cut-off voltage of 4.5 V. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements revealed that the material had a well-ordered layered structure and Zr was not doped into the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements showed that the coated material has stable cell resistance regardless of cycle number. The interrupt charging/discharging test indicated that the ZrO₂ coating can suppress the polarization effects during the charging and discharging process. From these results, it is believed that the improved cycling performance of ZrO₂-coated LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ is attributed to the ability of ZrO₂ layer in preventing direct contact of the active material with the electrolyte resulting in a decrease of electrolyte decomposition reactions.     

Electrochemical performance of SrF2-coated LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials for Li-ion batteries

SrF₂-coated LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode materials with improved cycling performance over 2.5–4.6 V were investigated. The structural and electrochemical properties of the materials were studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), charge–discharge tests and electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS). The results showed that the crystalline SrF₂ with about 10–50 nm particle size is uniformly coated on the surface of LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ particles. As the coating amount increased from 0.0 to 2.0 mol%, the initial capacity and rate capability of the coated LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ decreased slightly owing to the increase of the charge-transfer resistance; however, the cycling stability was improved by suppressing the increase of the resistance during cycling. 4.0 mol% SrF₂-coated LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ showed remarkable decrease of the initial capacity. 2.0 mol% coated sample exhibited the best electrochemical performance. It presented an initial discharge capacity of 165.7 mAh g⁻¹, and a capacity retention of 86.9% after 50 cycles at 4.6 V cut-off cycling.     

Studies on the low-heating solid-state reaction method to synthesize LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials

The low-heating solid-state method has been adopted to synthesize LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ materials. The final product, with homogeneous phase and smooth crystals indicated by XRD and SEM results, can be synthesized at 700 °C, much lower than the synthesis temperatures of co-precipitation method. The reaction process and microstructure of precursor has been investigated by IR spectrum. By comparative studies with the mixture of CH₃COOLi and (Ni, Co, Mn)(C₂O₄), it is testified that the precursor is homogeneous, rather than a mixture. The decomposition process and the reaction energy have been studied to investigate the reaction mechanism of the precursor when heated at high temperature. The as-synthesized LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ exhibits excellent electrochemical properties, exhibiting initial specific capacity of 167 mAh g⁻¹ with stable cyclic performance.     

Preparation and electrochemical characterization of single-crystalline spherical LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 powders cathode material for Li-ion batteries

LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ has aroused much interest as a new generation of cathode material for Li-ion batteries, due to its great advantages in capacity, stability, low cost and low toxicity, etc. Here we report a novel single-crystalline spherical LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ material that is prepared by a convenient rheological phase reaction route. The X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy indicate that the particles are highly dispersed with spherical morphologies and diameters of about 1-4 μm, and more interestingly, they show a perfect single-crystalline nature, which is not usual according to the crystal growth theories and may bring extra benefits to applications. Electrochemical tests show good performance of the material in both the capacity and cycling stability as cathode material in a model cell.     

Synthesis and characterization of submicron-sized LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 by a simple self-propagating solid-state metathesis method

Submicron-sized LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode materials were synthesized using a simple self-propagating solid-state metathesis method with the help of ball milling and the following calcination. A mixture of Li(ac)·2H₂O, Ni(ac)₂·4H₂O, Co(ac)₂·4H₂O, Mn(ac)₂·4H₂O (ac = acetate) and excess H₂C₂O₄·2H₂O was used as starting material without any solvent. XRD analyses indicate that the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ materials were formed with typical hexagonal structure. The FESEM images show that the primary particle size of the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ materials gradually increases from about 100 nm at 700 °C to 200–500 nm at 950 °C with increasing calcination temperature. Among the synthesized materials, the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ material calcined at 900 °C exhibits excellent electrochemical performance. The steady discharge capacities of the material cycled at 1 C (160 mA g⁻¹) rate are at about 140 mAh g⁻¹ after 100 cycles in the voltage range 3–4.5 V (versus Li⁺/Li) and the capacity retention is about 87% at the 350th cycle.     

High power and high capacity cathode material LiNi0.5Mn0.5O2 for advanced lithium-ion batteries

Single-phase lithium nickel manganese oxide, LiNi_0.5Mn_0.5O₂, was successfully synthesized from a solid solution of Ni_1.5Mn_1.5O₄ that was prepared by means of the solid reaction between Mn(CH₃COO)₂·4H₂O and Ni(CH₃COO)₂·4H₂O. XRD pattern shows that the product is well crystallized with a high degree of Li–M (Ni, Mn) order in their respective layers, and no diffraction peak of Li₂MnO₃ can be detected. Electrochemical performance of as-prepared LiNi_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ was examined in the test battery by charge–discharge cycling with different rate, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The cycling behavior between 2.5 and 4.4 V at a current rate of 21.7 mA g⁻¹ shows a reversible capacity of about 190 mAh g⁻¹ with little capacity loss after 100 cycles. High-rate capability test shows that even at a rate of 6C, stable capacity about 120 mAh g⁻¹ is retained. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) profile shows that the cathode material has better electrochemical reversibility. EIS analysis indicates that the resistance of charge transfer (R_ct) is small in fully charged state at 4.4 V and fully discharged state at 2.5 V versus Li⁺/Li. The favorable electrochemical performance was primarily attributed to regular and stable crystal structure with little intra-layer disordering.     

Structural changes and thermal stability of charged LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode material for Li-ion batteries studied by time-resolved XRD

Structural changes and their relationship with thermal stability of charged Li_0.33Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode samples have been studied using time-resolved X-ray diffraction (TR-XRD) in a wide temperature from 25 to 600 °C with and without the presence of electrolyte in comparison with Li_0.27Ni_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂ cathodes. Unique phase transition behavior during heating is found for the Li_0.33Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode samples: when no electrolyte is present, the initial layered structure changes first to a LiM₂O₄-type spinel, and then to a M₃O₄-type spinel and remains in this structure up to 600 °C. For the Li_0.33Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode sample with electrolyte, additional phase transition from the M₃O₄-type spinel to the MO-type rock salt phase takes place from about 400 to 441 °C together with the formation of metallic phase at about 460 °C. The major difference between this type of phase transitions and that for Li_0.27Ni_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂ in the presence of electrolyte is the delayed phase transition from the spinel-type to the rock salt-type phase by stretching the temperature range of spinel phases from about 20 to 140 °C. This unique behavior is considered as the key factor of the better thermal stability of the Li_1−xNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode materials.     

Electrochemical effects of ALD surface modification on combustion synthesized LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 as a layered-cathode material

Combustion synthesized Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂ particles are coated with thin, conformal layers of Al₂O₃ by atomic layer deposition (ALD). XRD, Raman, and FTIR are used to confirm that no change to the bulk, local structure occurs after coating. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results indicate that the surface of the Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂ are protected from dissolution and HF attack after only 4-layers, or ∼8.8 Å of alumina. Electrochemical performance at an upper cutoff of 4.5 V is greatly enhanced after the growth of Al₂O₃ surface film. Capacity retention is increased from 65% to 91% after 100 cycles at a rate of C/2 with the addition of only two atomic layers. Due to the conformal coating, the effects on Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂ overpotential and capacity are negligible below six ALD-layers. We propose that the use of ALD for coating on Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂ particles makes the material a stronger replacement candidate for LiCoO₂ as a positive electrode in lithium ion batteries.     

Morphology and electrochemical performance of Li[Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3]O2 cathode material by a slurry spray drying method

The spherical Li[Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3]O₂ powders with appropriate porosity, small particle size and good particle size distribution were successfully prepared by a slurry spray drying method. The Li[Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3]O₂ powders were characterized by XRD, SEM, ICP, BET, EIS and galvanostatic charge/discharge testing. The material calcined at 950 °C had the best electrochemical performance. Its initial discharge capacity was 188.9 mAh g⁻¹ at the discharge rate of 0.2 C (32 mA g⁻¹), and retained 91.4% of the capacity on going from 0.2 to 4 C rate. From the EIS result, it was found that the favorable electrochemical performance of the Li[Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3]O₂ cathode material was primarily attributed to the particular morphology formed by the spray drying process which was favorable for the charge transfer during the deintercalation and intercalation cycling.     

A new low-temperature synthesis and electrochemical properties of LiV3O8 hydrate as cathode material for lithium-ion batteries

LiV₃O₈, synthesized from V₂O₅ and LiOH, by heating of a suspension of V₂O₅ in a LiOH solution at a low-temperature (100-200 °C), exhibits a high discharge capacity and excellent cyclic stability at a high current density as a cathode material of lithium-ion battery. The charge-discharge curve shows a maximum discharge capacity of 228.6 mAh g⁻¹ at a current density of 150 mA g⁻¹ (0.5 C rate) and the 100 cycles discharge capacity remains 215 mAh g⁻¹. X-ray diffraction indicates the low degree of crystallinity and expanding of inter-plane distance of the LiV₃O₈ phase, and scanning electronic microscopy reveals the formation of nano-domain structures in the products, which account for the enhanced electrochemical performance. In contrast, the LiV₃O₈ phase formed at a higher temperature (300 °C) consists of well-developed crystal phases, and coherently, results in a distinct reduction of discharge capacity with cycle numbers. Thus, an enhanced electrochemical performance has been achieved for LiV₃O₈ by the soft chemical method via a low-temperature heating process.     

Thermal and electrochemical characterization of MCMB/LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 using LiBoB as an electrolyte additive

The gas generation associated with the use of the lithium bis(oxalate)borate—(LiBoB) based electrolyte at the elevated temperature were detected in the pouch cell (MCMB/LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ with 10% excess Li), which might prevent the LiBoB usage as a salt. However, the cell capacity retention was improved significantly, from 87 to 96% at elevated temperature, when using LiBoB as an electrolyte additive. The capacity fade during cycling is discussed using dQ/dE, area specific impedance, and frequency response analysis results. Most of the capacity loss in the cell is associated with the rise in the cell impedance. Moreover, results from the differential scanning calorimetry indicate that the thermal stability of the negative electrode with the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) formed by the reduction of the LiBoB additive was greatly improved compared with that obtained from the reduction of LiPF₆-based electrolyte without additive. In this case, the onset temperature of the breakdown of the LiBoB-based SEI is 150 °C which is higher than that of the conventional electrolyte without additive. Furthermore, the total heat generated between 60 and 170 °C is reduced from 213 to 70 J g⁻¹ when using LiBoB as electrolyte additive compared to the one without additive. In addition, the thermal stability of the charged LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ with 10% excess Li was not affected when using LiBoB as an electrolyte additive.     

Surface modification of LiNi1/2Mn3/2O4 thin-films by zirconium alkoxide/PMMA composites and their effects on electrochemical properties

Three kinds of surface modifications were carried out on LiNi_1/2Mn_3/2O₄ thin-films to improve the charge and discharge characteristics of LiNi_1/2Mn_3/2O₄ positive electrodes. Among them, Zr(OBu)₄/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)-treated LiNi_1/2Mn_3/2O₄ thin-film electrodes showed charge and discharge efficiency of 80–84% in the first cycle, which was much higher than that for an untreated LiNi_1/2Mn_3/2O₄ thin-film electrode (73%). The values of the charge and discharge efficiency were still higher than that for an untreated electrode after the 30th cycle. The charge and discharge curves gave two plateaus at around 4.72 and 4.76 V, which were very similar to those for the untreated electrode. Ac impedance spectroscopy revealed that the surface film resistance should not increase by Zr(OBu)₄/PMMA treatment. XPS measurements suggest that a composite layer should be formed on a LiNi_1/2Mn_3/2O₄ thin-film electrode from PMMA and Zr(OBu)₄-derived compounds introducing an electrolyte. This composite layer was lithium-ion conductive, and was sustainable enough to suppress subsequent decomposition of an electrolyte at potentials as high as 4.7 V.     

Research progress in high voltage spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 material

Lithium-ion batteries are now considered to be the technology of choice for future hybrid electric and full electric vehicles to address global warming. LiCoO₂ has been the most widely used cathode material in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Since LiCoO₂ has economic and environmental issues, intensive research has been directed towards the development of alternative low cost, environmentally friendly cathode materials as possible replacement of LiCoO₂. Among them, spinel LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ material is one of the promising and attractive cathode materials for next generation lithium-ion batteries because of its high voltage (4.7 V), acceptable stability, and good cycling performance. Research advances in high voltage spinel LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ are reviewed in this paper. Developments in synthesis, structural characterization, effect of doping, and effect of coating are presented. In addition to conventional synthesis methods, several alternative synthesis methods are also summarized. Apart from battery performance, the application of spinel LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ material in asymmetric supercapacitors is also discussed.     

In situ X-ray diffraction studies of mixed LiMn2O4-LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 composite cathode in Li-ion cells during charge-discharge cycling

The structural changes of the composite cathode made by mixing spinel LiMn₂O₄ and layered LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ in 1:1 wt% in both Li-half and Li-ion cells during charge/discharge are studied by in situ XRD. During the first charge up to ∼5.2 V vs. Li/Li⁺, the in situ XRD spectra for the composite cathode in the Li-half cell track the structural changes of each component. At the early stage of charge, the lithium extraction takes place in the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ component only. When the cell voltage reaches at ∼4.0 V vs. Li/Li⁺, lithium extraction from the spinel LiMn₂O₄ component starts and becomes the major contributor for the cell capacity due to the higher rate capability of LiMn₂O₄. When the voltage passed 4.3 V, the major structural changes are from the LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ component, while the LiMn₂O₄ component is almost unchanged. In the Li-ion cell using a MCMB anode and a composite cathode cycled between 2.5 V and 4.2 V, the structural changes are dominated by the spinel LiMn₂O₄ component, with much less changes in the layered LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ component, comparing with the Li-half cell results. These results give us valuable information about the structural changes relating to the contributions of each individual component to the cell capacity at certain charge/discharge state, which are helpful in designing and optimizing the composite cathode using spinel- and layered-type materials for Li-ion battery research.