Deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions associated with fuelwood consumption of the brick making industry in Sudan

The study focuses on the role of the fired clay brick making industry (BMI) on deforestation and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Sudan. The BMI is based on numerous kilns that use biomass fuel, mainly wood which is largely harvested unsustainably. This results in potential deforestation and land degradation. Fuelwood consumption data was collected using interviews and questionnaires from 25 BMI enterprises in three administrative regions, namely Khartoum, Kassala and Gezira. Annual fuelwood consumption data (t dm yr^− 1) was converted into harvested biomass (m³) using a wood density value of 0.65 t dm m^− 3. For annual GHG estimations, the methodological approach outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was used. According to our results, the annual deforestation associated with the BMI for the whole of Sudan is 508.4 × 10³ m³ of wood biomass, including 267.6 × 10³ m³ round wood and 240.8 × 10³ m³ branches and small trees. Total GHG emissions from the Sudanese BMI are estimated at 378 028 t CO₂, 15 554 t CO, 1778 t CH₄, 442 t NO_X, 288 t NO and 12 t N₂O per annum. The combined CO₂-equivalent (global warming potential for 100-year time horizon) of the GHG emissions (excluding NO_X and NO) is 455 666 t yr^− 1. While these emissions form only a small part of Sudan's total GHG emissions, the associated deforestation and land degradation is of concern and effort should be made for greater use of sustainable forest resources and management.     

Analysis of wood burning stoves as a supplemental heat source

The use of wood burning stoves as a supplemental residential heat source is examined. Three common types of wood burners are considered: the wood stove, the wood boiler, and the Franklin‐combination stove. The analysis focuses upon three main areas: cost, energy and environmental effects. Indications are that the large scale use of wood as a fuel source is a viable alternative to conventional energy sources in regions having ample forest resources and relatively low population densities.     

Experimental studies on indoor air pollution from domestic cooking appliances

The results of an extensive experimental study undertaken to determine the indoor concentration of several pollutants due to the combustion of domestic cooking fuels in respective appliances are summarised. The primary objective has been the statistical significance testing of the results of the pollution measurements. An attempt was also made to study and analyse the effect of a variety of factors affecting the indoor concentration of pollutants. The results have confirmed that there is statistically significant benefit in replacing the traditional biofuel stoves by improved cookstoves. Replacement of a traditional cookstove using dungcakes with a biogas stove also leads to a statistically significant reduction in the indoor concentration of pollutants. Similarly, a transition from traditional biofuels to kerosene/LPG for domestic cooking is found to lead to a significant reduction in the concentrations of indoor pollutants. However, in a large number of situations the trends observed in the level of pollutant concentration as measured during the experimentation are not statistically significant, and the validity of causal explanations usually given for the variation in the concentration of pollutants (due to change in fuel, fuel feeding rate, monitoring positions, etc.) is rather limited.     

Simulating the effects of fuel type and geometry on post-flashover fire temperatures

This paper discusses the effect of fuel type and geometry on predicted compartment temperatures derived from computer modelling of post-flashover compartment fires. Many previous studies have investigated post-flashover fires with either wood crib or liquid pool fuels, but very few analytical or experimental studies have considered realistic wood-based fuels with different ratios of surface area to volume, combined with plastic-based fuels. A simple single zone fire model was used to calculate the temperatures in post-flashover compartment fires. The program includes a catalogue of furniture items, each with fuel mass loss rate evaluated on the basis of a constant regression rate on all exposed surfaces. The program also includes a pool-burning model and considers wood fuels and thermoplastic fuels burning together inside a compartment. Use of the model shows that the total fuels load alone is not sufficient to characterise a post-flashover fire. The fire temperature is highly dependent on the fuel type and geometry. For given ventilation and total fuel load, the resulting temperature depends greatly on the average thickness of the wood fuels and the presence of thermoplastic fuels. The ratio of the available fuel surface area to the ventilation opening is particularly important. Several fire scenarios involving different fuel types and characteristics are simulated and compared with Eurocode parametric fires.     

Lower tract respiratory infection in children younger than 5 years of age and adverse pregnancy outcomes related to household air pollution in Bariloche (Argentina) and Temuco (Chile)

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the association between household air pollution with lower tract respiratory infection (LRTI) in children younger than 5 years old and adverse pregnancy outcomes. This retrospective cohort study took place in two cities in Patagonia. Using systemic random sampling, we selected households in which at least one child <5 years had lived and/or a child had been born alive or stillborn. Trained interviewers administered the questionnaire. We included 926 households with 695 pregnancies and 1074 children. Household cooking was conducted indoors in ventilated rooms and the use of wood as the principal fuel for cooking was lower in Temuco (13% vs. 17%). In exposed to biomass fuel use, the adjusted OR for LRTI was 1.87 (95% CI 0.98–3.55; P = 0.056) in Temuco and 1.12 (95% CI 0.61–2.05; P = 0.716) in Bariloche. For perinatal morbidity, the OR was 3.11 (95% CI 0.86–11.32; P = 0.084) and 1.41 (95% CI 0.50–3.97; P = 0.518), respectively. However, none of the effects were statistically significant (P > 0.05). The use of biomass fuel to cook in traditional cookstoves in ventilated dwellings may increase the risk of perinatal morbidity and LRTI.     

Which factors determine water saving behaviour? evidence from spanish households

In this paper we propose to answer the following questions: What does the adoption of water saving measures by Spanish households depend on? Which factors have the most influence on water saving behaviour? To this end we have conducted an empirical study in which a binary model (probit/logit) with interaction effects between city size, educational level and climatic area, along with other quantitative and qualitative variables, is estimated using household level data. The results of this estimation, together with the evaluation of probability changes that occur when any of the qualitative factors change, suggest that the level of income, the size of the city where the dwelling is, the educational level of the reference person and the climatic location of the city are factors that influence the attitude towards saving water.     

Understanding domestic fuel use practices in an urban township

Due to the complex interactions between socio-economic, cultural and political factors, some urban households consume a portfolio of energy sources, e.g. electricity, coal, paraffin, gas and solar power. A social construction of technology perspective is used to understand the choices underlying these multiple fuel practices. Nine participants (household energy managers, consumers and users) were purposefully selected from Soshanguve, an urban township in Pretoria, South Africa. Data were collected through individual in-depth interviews and narrative analysis was used to generate findings. Stories about multiple fuel use in the household showed this practice is common and forms part of the participants’ lifestyles. Social, cultural and political meanings of fuel use are identified in the narratives. Suggested interventions to optimize multiple fuel use in this context include additional technology such as solar power, collaborations with manufacturers to improve existing fuel types that are seen as potentially hazardous, and leveraging women’s knowledge and position in the household to formalize education about multiple fuels. The role of government in providing subsidies for alternative energies and reviewing accessibility to electricity was also highlighted by the participants. This research demonstrates that policy-makers should actively involve consumers in household energy system decisions through deliberative dialogue with communities.     

A survey on energy consumption in rural households in the fringes of Xian city

A survey, in the form of a questionnaire, of energy consumption patterns in residential households in the rural fringe of Xian city was undertaken during the winter of 2003/2004. More than 200 households were sampled during the survey. The status of fuel consumption, including the use of biomass fuels for cooking and space heating, was investigated. The types of stoves, purpose of the stove use, and characteristics of the residential houses and residents were also reported and analyzed.The purpose of the survey was to clarify the status of energy consumption and to estimate emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants in rural areas of China, from the environmental perspective of climate change and indoor to continental scale air pollution. In rural areas of China, biomass (wood and agricultural waste, such as stalks, corn canes and twigs, branches of wood) is the type of fuel most commonly used. It emits several air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), CO, NMHCs, CH₄ and high levels of black carbon (BC) – a greenhouse effect aerosol, and organic carbon (OC) – a cooling effect aerosol. However, CO₂ emissions from biomass burning are assumed to be zero because of carbon neutrality.From this survey it would then be possible to analyze the fundamentals of emission reduction potential, for air pollutants and greenhouse gases, from the rural household sector in China.     

Variability in energy and carbon dioxide balances of wood and concrete building materials

A variety of factors affect the energy and CO₂ balances of building materials over their lifecycle. Previous studies have shown that the use of wood for construction generally results in lower energy use and CO₂ emission than does the use of concrete. To determine the uncertainties of this generality, we studied the changes in energy and CO₂ balances caused by variation of key parameters in the manufacture and use of the materials comprising a wood- and a concrete-framed building. Parameters considered were clinker production efficiency, blending of cement, crushing of aggregate, recycling of steel, lumber drying efficiency, material transportation distance, carbon intensity of fossil fuel, recovery of logging, sawmill, construction and demolition residues for biofuel, and growth and exploitation of surplus forest not needed for wood material production. We found the materials of the wood-framed building had lower energy and CO₂ balances than those of the concrete-framed building in all cases but one. Recovery of demolition and wood processing residues for use in place of fossil fuels contributed most significantly to the lower energy and CO₂ balances of wood-framed building materials. We conclude that the use of wood building material instead of concrete, coupled with greater integration of wood by-products into energy systems, would be an effective means of reducing fossil fuel use and net CO₂ emission to the atmosphere.     

Does rural broadband impact jobs and income? Evidence from spatial and first-differenced regressions

In order to better understand the association between broadband and jobs/income in non-metropolitan counties, this study conducts spatial and first-differenced regressions using recent data from the Federal Communications Commission and the National Broadband Map. The relationships between broadband adoption/availability and jobs/income in rural areas are analyzed after controlling for a host of potentially influential variables such as age, race, educational attainment, transportation infrastructure, and the presence of natural amenities. Results from spatial error models using 2011 data provide evidence that high levels of broadband adoption in non-metro counties are positively related to the number of firms and total employees in those counties. The first-differenced regressions use data from 2008 and 2011 to suggest that increases in broadband adoption levels are associated with increases in median household income and the percentage of non-farm proprietors in non-metro counties. Interestingly, simply obtaining increases in broadband availability (not adoption) over this time has no statistical impact on either jobs or income.     

The influence of coping appraisals on the adoption of decentralised water systems in Australia

In Australia, water scarcity has resulted in the need for re-evaluating demand management policies, as well as the identification of alternative water supplies. Specifically, water utilities have been focusing on increasing the adoption of household level decentralised water systems (DWS). While such engineering solutions may be effective, understanding the factors which influence adoption is crucial for widespread uptake. Protection Motivation (PM) theory was used to assess DWS adoption in a sample of 295 homeowners across South East Queensland, Australia. Results provided good support for the application of PM theory to understanding whether people cope adaptively to water shortage threats. The model’s hypothesised link between adaptive coping and behavioural intention was also supported, suggesting PM theory can be used to understand people’s intention to adopt DWS in the context of the drought. The predictive ability of the PM model improved significantly when demographic variables – age and perceived water – use were included.     

A comparative study of human exposures to household air pollution from commonly used cookstoves in Sri Lanka

Solid fuel burning cookstoves are a major source of household air pollution (HAP) and a significant environmental health risk in Sri Lanka. We report results of the first field study in Sri Lanka to include direct measurements of both real‐time indoor concentrations and personal exposures of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) in households using the two most common stove types in Sri Lanka. A purposive sample of 53 households was selected in the rural community of Kopiwatta in central Sri Lanka, roughly balanced for stove type (traditional or improved ‘Anagi’) and ventilation (chimney present or absent). At each household, 48‐h continuous real‐time measurements of indoor kitchen PM_2.5 and personal (primary cook) PM_2.5 concentrations were measured using the RTI MicroPEM^? personal exposure monitor. Questionnaires were used to collect data related to household demographics, characteristics, and self‐reported health symptoms. All primary cooks were female and of an average age of 47 years, with 66% having completed primary education. Median income was slightly over half the national median monthly income. Use of Anagi stoves was positively associated with a higher education level of the primary cook (P = 0.026), although not associated with household income (P = 0.18). The MicroPEM monitors were well‐received by participants, and this study's valid data capture rate exceeded 97%. Participant wearing compliance during waking hours was on average 87.2% on Day 1 and 83.3% on Day 2. Periods of non‐compliance occurred solely during non‐cooking times. The measured median 48‐h average indoor PM_2.5 concentration for households with Anagi stoves was 64 μg/m³ if a chimney was present and 181 μg/m³ if not. For households using traditional stoves, these values were 70 μg/m³ if a chimney was present and 371 μg/m³ if not. Overall, measured indoor PM_2.5 concentrations ranged from a minimum of 33 μg/m³ to a maximum of 940 μg/m³, while personal exposure concentrations ranged from 34 to 522 μg/m³. Linear mixed effects modeling of the dependence of indoor concentrations on stove type and presence or absence of chimney showed a significant chimney effect (65% reduction; P < 0.001) and an almost significant stove effect (24% reduction; P = 0.054). Primary cooks in households without chimneys were exposed to substantially higher levels of HAP than those in households with chimneys, while exposures in households with traditional stoves were moderately higher than those with improved Anagi stoves. As expected, simultaneously measuring both indoor concentrations and personal exposure levels indicate significant exposure misclassification bias will likely result from the use of a stationary monitor as a proxy for personal exposure. While personal exposure monitoring is more complex and expensive than deploying simple stationary devices, the value an active personal PM monitor like the MicroPEM adds to an exposure study should be considered in future study designs.     

Income,energy expenditure and housing in Madrid: retrofitting policy implications

Fuel poverty can be defined as ‘the inability to afford adequate warmth in the home’ and it is the result of the combination of three factors: low household income, lack of energy efficiency and high energy bills. Within this context, the present research is aimed at characterizing, for the first time, the housing stock of fuel-poor households in the Autonomous Region of Madrid. Fuel poverty incidence was established and households were divided into six different groups according to their relative position regarding fuel and monetary poverty. The housing stock of each group is characterized and those households most in need are identified. These results enable energy retrofitting priorities to be established, focusing on the needs of the different household groups and accounting for their housing stock characteristics. This allows Spanish energy retrofitting policies to be assessed for their capability of tackling fuel poverty and makes it possible to suggest some improvements.     

Usage and impacts of the Envirofit HM‐5000 cookstove

Burning solid fuels to fulfill daily household energy needs results in chronic exposure to household air pollution (HAP), which is among the world's greatest health risks. This paper presents the results of a cross‐sectional study of cookstove usage, fuel consumption, and indoor PM_2.5 concentrations in rural and urban Honduran homes cooking with the Envirofit HM‐5000 metal plancha stove (n = 32) as compared to control households using baseline cooking technologies (n = 33). Temperature‐based stove usage measurements showed high HM‐5000 acceptance, with significant displacement of the traditional cookstoves at both the urban (99%, P < .05) and rural study sites (75%, P < .05). However, longer‐term usage data collected in peri‐urban households showed that participants cooked on the HM‐5000 more frequently during the 3‐day monitoring period than during the following 3 weeks. Average indoor PM_2.5 was 66% lower in HM‐5000 households as compared to control households (P < .05). Lower indoor PM_2.5 concentrations observed in participant homes as compared to control households, supported by high usage and traditional stove displacement, suggest the potential for the HM‐5000 to yield health improvements in adopting Honduran households.     

A Randomised Controlled Trial of an Energy Efficiency Intervention for Families Living in Fuel Poverty

This paper discusses a pragmatic randomised controlled trial of a fuel poverty intervention undertaken in NE England over a four-year period, starting in 2000/2001. Home energy efficiency was measured through Standardised Assessment Procedure (SAP) ratings in each year of the trial. The trial group received an energy efficiency intervention package in year three, and the control group in year four. Year three room temperature data for a sub-sample of 100 households were obtained. A comparison group of households not living in fuel poverty were also surveyed in all four years of the study. The intervention improved SAP ratings by 12 points, generating room temperature increases of about one degree Celsius. Families did not respond to energy efficiency gains by reducing their heating expenditure. The intervention generated improvements in satisfaction with household warmth. Its receipt was not associated with gains in self-reported health. However, modest correlations between room temperatures and better social functioning, as measured by the SF36, was found.     

A study on environmental impact of nanofluid-based concentrating solar water heating system

The rising cost of fossil fuels and the growing concern for a clean environment have paved the way for adoption of renewable and sustainable sources of energy. Domestic water heating can result from solar energy, a clean and renewable alternative, which can at the same time help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines the potential of the nanofluid-based concentrating solar water heating system (NCSWHS) as an alternative to systems based on fossil fuels. The paper reports a quantitative assessment to assess the potential environmental benefits which could be obtained from NCSWHS if substituted for those using fossil fuels. The analysis reveals that considerable emission reductions (about 2.2 x 10³ kg of CO₂/household/ year) and fuel savings can be achieved if the NCSWHS are adopted.     

Indoor air pollution in developing countries: recommendations for research

Available studies indicate that indoor air pollution (IAP) from household cooking and space heating apparently causes substantial ill-health in developing countries where the majority of households rely on solid fuels (coal or biomass as wood, crop residues, and dung), but there are many remaining uncertainties. To pin down impacts in order to effectively target interventions, research is particularly needed in three areas: (1) epidemiology: case-control studies for tuberculosis (TB) and cardiovascular disease in women and randomized intervention trials for childhood acute respiratory diseases and adverse pregnancy outcomes; (2) exposure assessment: techniques and equipment for inexpensive exposure assessment at large scale, including national level surveys; (3) interventions: engineering and dissemination approaches for improved stoves, fuels, ventilation, and behavior that reliably and economically reduce exposure. There are also important potential synergisms between efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and those to reduce health-damaging emissions from solid-fuel stoves. The substitution of biomass by coal being considered in some countries should be pursued with caution because of the known serious health effects of household coal use.     

An economic justification for rural afforestation: The case of Ethiopia

It has proven difficult to quantify the economic benefits of large-scale rural afforestation and to establish the priority for public sector investment in traditional rural energy supply vis-a-vis investment in the supply of modern fuels (electricity, petroleum) to the urban industrial market. This paper outlines, in simple terms, the biological links between deforestation and agricultural production at the subsistence level and quantifies the economic benefits of increased food production obtained by replacing animal dung as a fuel with firewood from rural forestry programs.This paper was originally issued as World Bank Energy Department Paper No. 16, in August 1984. The views presented are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the World Bank.     

Comparative environmental assessment of wood transport models: A case study of a Swedish pulp mill

Wood transportation from forest landing to forest-based industries uses large amounts of energy. In the case of Sweden, where forest operations are highly and efficiently mechanized, this stage consumes more fossil fuels than other elements of the wood supply chain (such as silviculture and logging operations). This paper intends to compare the environmental burdens associated to different wood transport models considering a Swedish pulp mill as a case study by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as an analytical tool.Five scenarios (the current one and four alternative reliable scenarios) were proposed and analysed taking into account two variables. On the one hand, the influence of imported pulpwood share from Baltic countries and on the other hand, the use of rail transportation for wood transport. In particular, the following impact categories were assessed: Eutrophication, Global Warming, Photochemical Oxidant Formation, Acidification and Fossil fuel extraction. The environmental results indicate that transport alternatives including electric and diesel trains, as well as the reduction in Baltic wood imports should present better environmental performance than the current scenario in terms of all the impact categories under study. Remarkable differences were identified with regard to energy requirements. This divergence is related to different long-distance transport strategies (lorry, boat and/or train) as well as the relative import of wood selected.The combination of lorry and train in wood transportation from Southern Sweden plus the reduction of wood imports from 25% to 15% seems to be more favourable from an environmental perspective. The results obtained allow forecasting the importance of the wood transport strategy in the wood supply chain in LCA of forest products and the influence of energy requirements in the results.