Nitrate suppresses internal phosphorus loading in an eutrophic lake

The presence of nitrate in the hypolimnion of the eutrophic, dimictic Upper Mystic Lake has been previously shown to suppress the release of arsenic from lake sediments during seasonal anoxia, in large part by oxidizing iron (II) and producing iron oxyhydroxides that sorb inorganic arsenic. Because of the importance of internal phosphorus loading in the phosphorus budget of many eutrophic lakes, the chemical similarities between phosphate and arsenate, and the need to account for internal phosphorus loading as part of many lake restoration strategies, we carried out measurements to determine if the presence of nitrate also suppressed the release of phosphorus from the sediments of this lake during anoxia. Observations showed that this was the case. Arsenic, phosphorus, and iron (II) concentrations were strongly correlated in the water column, as expected, and the depths below which phosphorus and iron concentrations increased relative to epilimnetic values was predicted by the depth at which nitrate concentration approached zero. The results suggest that knowledge of a lake’s nitrogen budget may be a useful tool in the design of lake remediation efforts, even though phosphorus is typically the limiting nutrient.     

Phosphorus fractions and profiles in the sediment of shallow Danish lakes as related to phosphorus load,sediment composition and lake chemistry

Depth profiles of sediment dry weight (DW), loss on ignition (LOI), total iron (Fe), total nitrogen (TN), calcium (Ca), total phosphorus (TP), NH₄Cl-P, NaOH-P, HCl-P and Res-P were measured in 32 shallow meso- to hypertrophic Danish lakes and the data compared with that for external phosphorus load (Pex), lake water phosphorus and phytoplankton biovolume. Surface sediment TP was highly and positively correlated to Pex (g P m⁻² y⁻¹) and Fe (mg Fe g⁻¹ DW) (TP = 0.92 + 0.23 Pex + 0.031 Fe, r² = 0.68, P < 0.0001), but not or only weakly related to the other parameters analyzed. NaOH-P in the sediment was significantly and positively correlated to Fe (r² = 0.43) and TP (r² = 0.75), while HCl-P was correlated to Pex (r² = 0.68), TP (r² = 0.28) and to phytoplankton biovolume (r² = 0.35), but not to Ca. On average 4% of the surface sediment TP was NH₄Cl-extractable, 35% NaOH-extractable and 20% HCl-extractable, with the remaining 41% being residual phosphorus (Res-P). At sediment depths below 50 cm the Res-P fraction was greater (63% of TP), while there was still considerable NaOH-P (21% of TP), thus indicating a significant permanent deposition of iron-bound phosphorus. In most sediments a higher surface Res-P and NaOH-P were recorded as compared to depths below 20–30 cm. The presence of a NaOH-P gradient, even in lakes in which P-lake and anthropogenic impact were low, suggests that post-depositional mobility of phosphorus may occur. The Res-P gradient indicates that a major part of the organically bound phosphorus in the upper 10–20 cm of the sediment eventually is mineralized and dissolved.     

Phosphorus sorption experiments and the potential for internal phosphorus loading in littoral areas of a stratified lake

The exchange of phosphorus (P) during the resuspension of sediments into shallow (oxic) waters of deep stratified lakes is regulated by equilibrium dynamics. In this study, we compared the P-sorption characteristics of sediments from 17 shallow and deep littoral sites in an oligo-mesotrophic lake. Zero Equilibrium P Concentration (EPC₀) ranged from 0.2 to 5 μg P L⁻¹. EPC₀ did not vary with sediment characteristics, but increased with increasing sediment-to-water ratios (SWR). Buffering capacity also increased with increasing SWR up to 1 g L⁻¹, at which point P concentrations were buffered almost perfectly. Therefore, internal P loading in littoral areas may depend primarily on the intensity and duration of sediment resuspension instead of sediment composition, and is expected to be spatially and temporally patchy. Maximum P-sorption capacity (S_max) varied with chemical composition of the sediments, but was generally low, indicating a limited capacity of littoral sediments to retain external inputs of P.     

Variability in phosphorus binding by aluminum in alum treated lakes explained by lake morphology and aluminum dose

Sediment cores from six aluminum sulfate treated lakes in Minneapolis, MN were analyzed to determine the effectiveness of phosphorus (P) binding by aluminum (Al). Two of the study lakes are polymictic and the remaining four are dimictic. Above background concentrations of Al and Al-bound-P (P_Al) were detected in all six lakes at varying sediment depths. In contrast to previous studies, however, the binding relationship between Al and P was not consistent between lakes and substantial variation was also detected within each sediment profile. Average lake sediment Al:P_Al ratios ranged from 5.6 to 15 (molar) with higher ratios, or less efficient P binding, generally being detected in deep, dimictic lakes with high sediment Al content due to treatment. Multiple linear regression was used to explain the variability among average Al:P_Al ratios detected in each core and a lake morphometry index (Al Depth Index, core collection depth divided by the square root of lake area) along with Al dose described most of the variation (92%). Even though P bound to the added Al appears to be permanently removed from the internal P cycle in each lake (as evidenced by burial with new sediment), the differences in binding efficiency may indicate lower P inactivation, on a per unit Al basis, when elevated amounts of Al are added to the sediment, especially in deeper areas of lakes where sediment focusing may cause elevated Al accumulation to occur.     

Internal phosphorus loading in a shallow eutrophic lake

Internal loading of phosphorus has been implicated as a major eutrophicating factor in Long Lake, Washington (Kitsap County). As a result of such loading, summer total phosphorus concentrations approach or exceed 100 μgP l⁻¹. Most of the summer loading of phosphorus is thought to have been released directly from the rich, flocculent sediment in the mid and northern part of the lake as a result of high pH (up to 10) related to phytoplankton photosynthesis. The lake also supports a dense submersed macrophyte crop (areal weighted mean dry weight of about 220 g m⁻²) composed primarily of Elodea densa. Although excretion of phosphorus from healthy E. densa was found to be minimal, the potential contribution of P indirectly from sediment via macrophyte uptake and subsequent decomposition in the winter was on the order of 200–400 kg yr⁻¹ or about 25–50% of the external loading. Nevertheless, loading of phosphorus during predrawdown summers is thought to have originated largely as a direct release from sediment due to high pH. Estimates of sediment phosphorus release determined from laboratory experiments, mass balance and core analyses ranged from 2.2 to 5.6 mg m⁻² day⁻¹.As a component of the restoration program, the lake (mean depth of 2 m) was drawn down nearly 2 m for 4 months during the summer and fall of 1979. The lake's trophic status was expected to improve due to sediment consolidation and/or macrophyte reduction. The drawdown resulted in an 84% reduction in macrophyte biomass in 1980 but minimal sediment consolidation (0.1 m). Winter decomposition of the much smaller macrophyte crop, apparently provided insufficient phosphorus in the spring to stimulate phytoplankton and to enrich midlake sediments, which has probably occurred in previous years. Low water column pH during the postdrawndown summer of 1980 resulted from relatively low rates of plankton photosynthesis. During the summer of 1980 internal loading of phosphorus was reduced and total phosphorus remained below 50 μg l⁻¹.     

Alteration to lake trophic status as a means to control arsenic mobility in a mine-impacted lake

The relationship between lake trophic status, sedimentary redox conditions and As mobility was examined in mine-impacted Balmer Lake, Canada. Under the current redox regime, the reductive dissolution of As-bearing Fe(III) oxyhydroxides occurs in close proximity to the sediment–water interface, resulting in the remobilization of dissolved As in the shallow porewaters to values as high as 8.5 mg L⁻¹. The shallow depth of the oxic zone limits the extent to which As can be re-sorbed in the interfacial horizons, and as a result, a proportion of the remobilized As escapes into the water column where it poses a water quality concern. Examination of the relationship between summer average chlorophyll a and total P at spring overturn in the lake water column demonstrates that Balmer Lake is currently eutrophic as a result of mining-derived inputs of P (domestic waters) and N (blasting residues and cyanide breakdown products). The results suggest that actively pushing the system towards oligotrophy by reducing non-natural P loadings to the system will decrease rates of in situ production and associated sediment oxygen demand, which will in turn result in increased thickness of the aerobic zone and enhanced As scavenging. Such conclusions are supported by porewater data which indicate that the flux of As to the water column is significantly reduced when the Fe(III) redox cline is situated at deeper sediment depths. In the absence of detailed P-loading data, it is recommended that P inputs be reduced to 10% of the estimated pre-mining P loading of 200 kg yr⁻¹. This implies reducing the collective P-loadings from the two mine sites adjacent to the lake from the approximate current value (150 kg yr⁻¹) to 20 kg yr⁻¹. It is proposed that establishment of oligotrophy in the lake should significantly mitigate the current level of dissolved As in lake waters.     

Sewage effluent clean-up reduces phosphorus but not phytoplankton in lowland chalk stream (River Kennet, UK) impacted by water mixing from adjacent canal

Information is provided on phosphorus in the River Kennet and the adjacent Kennet and Avon Canal in southern England to assess their interactions and the changes following phosphorus reductions in sewage treatment work (STW) effluent inputs.A step reduction in soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentration within the effluent (5 to 13 fold) was observed from several STWs discharging to the river in the mid-2000s. This translated to over halving of SRP concentrations within the lower Kennet. Lower Kennet SRP concentrations change from being highest under base-flow to highest under storm-flow conditions. This represented a major shift from direct effluent inputs to a within-catchment source dominated system characteristic of the upper part to the catchment. Average SRP concentrations in the lower Kennet reduced over time towards the target for good water quality. Critically, there was no corresponding reduction in chlorophyll-a concentration, the waters remaining eutrophic when set against standards for lakes.Following the up gradient input of the main water and SRP source (Wilton Water), SRP concentrations in the canal reduced down gradient to below detection limits at times near its junction with the Kennet downstream. However, chlorophyll concentrations in the canal were in an order of magnitude higher than in the river. This probably resulted from long water residence times and higher temperatures promoting progressive algal and suspended sediment generations that consumed SRP. The canal acted as a point source for sediment, algae and total phosphorus to the river especially during the summer months when boat traffic disturbed the canal's bottom sediments and the locks were being regularly opened. The short-term dynamics of this transfer was complex. For the canal and the supply source at Wilton Water, conditions remained hypertrophic when set against standards for lakes even when SRP concentrations were extremely low.     

Evaluation of sediment capping with active barrier systems (ABS) using calcite/zeolite mixtures to simultaneously manage phosphorus and ammonium release

The efficiency and mechanism of sediment capping with an active barrier system (ABS) using calcite/zeolite mixtures to simultaneously prevent phosphorus (P) and ammonium (NH₄⁺) release from eutrophic lake sediments under anaerobic conditions was investigated through a series of batch and sediment incubation experiments. For this, natural calcite and various zeolites (natural, NaCl-pretreated and CaCl₂-pretreated zeolites) were applied. Batch tests showed that the calcite was efficient for the removal of phosphate in aqueous solution and the zeolite was an efficient adsorbent for the removal of NH₄⁺ from aqueous solution. Sediment incubation experiments showed that the P and NH₄⁺ fluxes from the anaerobic sediments were significantly reduced by the ABS using the mixture of calcite and natural zeolite. Higher calcite dosage was found to be favorable for the prevention of P release from the sediments using the ABS. For controlling the P release from the sediments, the mixture of calcite and CaCl₂-pretreated zeolite as a capping material was more efficient than that of calcite and natural zeolite, whereas the mixture of calcite and NaCl-pretreated zeolite was less efficient than that of calcite and natural zeolite. Batch and sediment incubation experiments proved that the zeolite as a component of the ABS using the mixture of calcite and CaCl₂-pretreated zeolite has a dual function: (i) preventing NH₄⁺ release from the sediments; and (ii) supplying Ca²⁺ through a Ca²⁺/NH₄⁺ exchange to improve the ability of the capping material to immobilize P release from the sediments.     

Vertical variation in magnitude and partitioning of oxygen demand in a contaminated sediment

Antimicrobial resistance is a phenomenon of increasing importance. Sewage treatment processes are a vehicle for dissemination of resistant bacteria in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. To assess the number of antimicrobial resistant E. coli present in the wastewater inflow, effluent and sludge from urban sewage treatment plants in Portugal, 42 samples of crude inflow, treated effluent and sludge were collected in 14 municipal sewage treatment plants in Portugal. A total of 940 E. coli strains were recovered and tested, using the diffusion agar method, regarding their sensitivity to 12 different antimicrobial drugs. Resistance to tetracycline, ampicillin, trimethoprime/sulfamethoxazole, streptomycin and ciprofloxacin was found in 42.2, 32.6, 23.3, 26.4 and 11.9% of the isolates, respectively. No correlation was found with regards to medical antimicrobial use in Portugal. The highest resistance rates were found in E. coli strains isolated from the district capitals sampled. Wastewater treatment resulted in E. coli decrease between less than one log to four logs; nevertheless, an average of 1.17 × 10⁶ CFU/100 ml were present in the outflow of the plants. This investigation highlights the necessity for constant monitoring of the final effluent and sludge from these treatment facilities.     

Lake sedimentary evidence of phosphorus,iron and manganese mobilisation from intensively fertilised soils

A study of historical P inputs to Friary Lough, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland used a multi-sediment core approach. One of the sediment cores taken from the littoral zone at 2.5m water depth showed exceptionally high P, Fe and Mn concentrations below 20 cm sediment depth. Concentrations increased to 14 mg Pg(-1), 238 mg Feg(-1) and 35 mg Mng(-1) in the sediment profile and compared with deep basin maxima of 7 mg Pg(-1), 70 mg Feg(-1) and 2 mg Mng(-1) in surface sediments at 8.5m water depth. It is proposed that the high concentrations in the littoral zone core are due to post-depositional intrusion of chemical-rich local groundwater from soils in adjacent fields that are excessively fertilised with organic slurry. Soil analyses showed Olsen-P concentrations in these fields up to 125 mgkg(-1) at the soil surface (0-7.5 cm) and 39 mgkg(-1) in the sub-soil at 20 cm depth. We suggest that the mobilisation of P, Fe and Mn is due to leaching following P saturation and/or the loss of P absorbing chemicals due to prolonged reduction and complexing in wet soils. Further work will explore this relationship and the nature of the hydrological pathways through soil.     

Nutrient and sediment removal by stormwater biofilters: a large-scale design optimisation study

A large-scale column study was conducted in Melbourne, Australia, to test the performance of stormwater biofilters for the removal of sediment, nitrogen and phosphorus. The aim of the study was to provide guidance on the optimal design for reliable treatment performance. A variety of factors were tested, using 125 large columns: plant species, filter media, filter depth, filter area and pollutant inflow concentration. The results demonstrate that vegetation selection is critical to performance for nitrogen removal (e.g. Carex appressa and Melaleuca ericifolia performed significantly better than other tested species). Whilst phosphorus removal was consistently very high (typically around 85%), biofilter soil media with added organic matter reduced the phosphorus treatment effectiveness. Biofilters built according to observed 'optimal specifications' can reliably remove both nutrients (up to 70% for nitrogen and 85% for phosphorus) and suspended solids (consistently over 95%). The optimally designed biofilter is at least 2% of its catchment area and possesses a sandy loam filter media, planted with C. appressa or M. ericifolia. Further trials will be required to test a wider range of vegetation, and to examine performance over the longer term. Future work will also examine biofilter effectiveness for treatment of heavy metals and pathogens.     

Examining the link between terrestrial and aquatic phosphorus speciation in a subtropical catchment: the role of selective erosion and transport of fine sediments during storm events

This study examined the link between terrestrial and aquatic phosphorus (P) speciation in the soils and sediments of a subtropical catchment. Specifically, the study aimed to identify the relative importance of P speciation in source soils, erosion and transport processes upstream, and aquatic transformation processes as determinants of P speciation in lake sediments (Lake Wivenhoe). Using a sequential extraction technique, NH₄Cl extractable P (NH₄Cl-P; exchangeable P), bicarbonate-dithionite extractable P (BD-P; reductant soluble P), NaOH extractable P (NaOH-rP; Al/Fe oxide P), HCl extractable P (HCl-P; apatite-P), and residual-P (Res-P; organic and residual inorganic P) fractions were compared in different soil/sediment compartments of the upper Brisbane River (UBR) catchment, Queensland, Australia. Multidimensional scaling identified two distinct groups of samples, one consisting of lake sediments and suspended sediments, and another consisting of riverbed sediments and soils. The riverbed sediments and soils had significantly higher HCl-P and lower NaOH-rP and Res-P relative to the lake and suspended sediments (P < 0.05). Analysis of the enrichment factors (EFs) of soils and riverbed sediments showed that fine grained particles (<63 μm) were enriched in all but the HCl-P fraction. This indicated that as finer particles are eroded from the soil surface and transported downstream there is a preferential export of non-apatite P (NaOH-rP, NaOH-nrP, BD-P and Res-P). Therefore, due to the preferential erosion and transport of fine sediments, the lake sediments contained a higher proportion of more labile forms of inorganic-P relative to the broader soil/sediment system. Our results suggest that a greater focus on the effect of selective erosion and transport on sediment P speciation in lakes and reservoirs is needed to better target management strategies aimed at reducing P availability, particularly in P-limited water bodies impacted by soil erosion.     

Reduction in microcystin concentrations in large and shallow lakes: water and sediment-interface contributions

Blooms of cyanobacteria, or blue-greens, are known to produce chemicals, such as microcystins, which can be toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Although previous studies have examined the fate of microcystins in freshwater lakes, primary elimination pathways and factors affecting degradation and loss have not been fully explained. The goal of the present study was to explore sources of algal toxins and investigate the distribution and biodegradation of microcystins in water and sediment through laboratory and field analyses. Water and sediment samples were collected monthly from several locations in Lake Taihu from February 2005 to January 2006. Samples were analyzed for the presence of microcystin. Water and sediment were also used in laboratory studies to determine microcystin degradation rates by spiking environmental samples with known concentrations of the chemical and observing concentration changes over time. Some water samples were found to efficiently degrade microcystins. Microcystin concentrations dropped faster in water collected immediately above lake sediment (overlying water). Degradation in sediments was higher than in water. Based on spatial distribution analyses of microcystin in Lake Taihu, higher concentrations (relative to water concentrations) of the chemical were found in lake sediments. These data suggest that sediments play a critical role in microcystin degradation in aquatic systems. The relatively low levels of microcystins found in the environment are most likely due to bacterial biodegradation. Sediments play a crucial role as a source (to the water column) of bio-degrading bacteria and as a carbon-rich environment for bacteria to proliferate and metabolize microcystin and other biogenic toxins produced by cyanobacteria. These, and other, data provide important information that may be applied to management strategies for improvement of water quality in lakes, reservoirs and other water bodies.     

Characterization of phosphorus-releasing bacteria in a small eutrophic shallow lake, Eastern China

Phosphorus contents and phosphorus-releasing bacteria were characterized in a small eutrophic lake, Eastern China. Total phosphorus and water soluble inorganic phosphate (WSIP) in water bodies were as high as the levels of hyper-eutrophic lakes. Calcium bound phosphate and organic phosphorus were 2 major forms of phosphorus existing in the sediments. Enumeration of inorganic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (IPB) and organic phosphorus-mineralizing bacteria (OPB) with culture-dependent method showed that these bacterial groups were not very rich in the ecosystem. Molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis of the predominant IPB and OPB strains indicated that there existed various kinds of bacteria participating in the phosphorus release. Laboratory tests on phosphorus release abilities showed IPB strains could liberate more than 50 microgml(-1), while OPB strains produced less than 2 microgml(-1) WSIP every day.     

Internal loading of phosphorus in a sedimentation pond of a treatment wetland: effect of a phytoplankton crash

Sedimentation ponds are widely believed to act as a primary removal process for phosphorus (P) in nutrient treatment wetlands. High frequency in-situ P, ammonium (NH₄⁺) and dissolved oxygen measurements, alongside occasional water quality measurements, assessed changes in nutrient concentrations and productivity in the sedimentation pond of a treatment wetland between March and June. Diffusive equilibrium in thin films (DET) probes were used to measure in-situ nutrient and chemistry pore-water profiles. Diffusive fluxes across the sediment-water interface were calculated from the pore-water profiles, and dissolved oxygen was used to calculate rates of primary productivity and respiration. The sedimentation pond was a net sink for total P (TP), soluble reactive P (SRP) and NH₄⁺ in March, but became subject to a net internal loading of TP, SRP and NH₄⁺ in May, with SRP concentrations increasing by up to 41 μM (1300 μl^− 1). Reductions in chlorophyll a and dissolved oxygen concentrations also occurred at this time. The sediment changed from a small net sink of SRP in March (average diffusive flux: − 8.2 μmol m^− 2 day^− 1) to a net source of SRP in June (average diffusive flux: + 1324 μmol m^− 2 day^− 1). A diurnal pattern in water column P concentrations, with maxima in the early hours of the morning, and minima in the afternoon, occurred during May. The diurnal pattern and release of SRP from the sediment were attributed to microbial degradation of diatom biomass, causing reduction of the dissolved oxygen concentration and leading to redox-dependent release of P from the sediment. In June, 2.7 mol-P day^− 1 were removed by photosynthesis and 23 mol-P day^− 1 were supplied by respiration in the lake volume. SRP was also released through microbial respiration within the water column, including the decomposition of algal matter. It is imperative that consideration to internal recycling is given when maintaining sedimentation ponds, and before the installation of new ponds designed to treat nutrient waste.     

Lake restoration by hypolimnetic Ca(OH)2 treatment: impact on phosphorus sedimentation and release from sediment

A whole-lake hypolimnetic Ca(OH)₂ addition, that induced calcium carbonate precipitation, combined with deep water aeration has been applied to eutrophic Lake Luzin, Germany during 1996-1998. In this study we investigated the dynamic of phosphorus and its binding forms in seston and sediment before and during the treatment. The sedimentation rates of phosphorus increased within three years of induced calcite precipitation. The phosphorus binding forms shifted to the calcite-bound phosphorus in the settling matter. The increase of calcite-bound P in the settling material did not coincide with the maximum induced CaCO₃-precipitation caused by the hypolimnetic addition of Ca(OH)₂. An impact of chemicals additions and pH on phosphorus binding forms in seston and surface sediments has been studied in laboratory experiments with sediment core incubations and slurry experiments.Laboratory studies showed that the lowest phosphorus flux from sediment was related to the experiment with pH = 7 in overlaying water adjusted with Ca(OH)₂. The adjusting of pH with Ca(OH)₂ leads to a lower P flux of 2.3 mg P m⁻² d⁻¹, while the highest P-flux is attributed to the experiment with the pH which was adjusted with NaOH. Phosphorus fraction which reflects phosphorus binding on carbonates in surface sediments increased within one year of treatment, enhancing the phosphorus retention capacity of sediments.     

Controlling harmful cyanobacterial blooms in a hyper-eutrophic lake (Lake Taihu, China): the need for a dual nutrient (N & P) management strategy

Harmful cyanobacterial blooms, reflecting advanced eutrophication, are spreading globally and threaten the sustainability of freshwater ecosystems. Increasingly, non-nitrogen (N₂)-fixing cyanobacteria (e.g., Microcystis) dominate such blooms, indicating that both excessive nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loads may be responsible for their proliferation. Traditionally, watershed nutrient management efforts to control these blooms have focused on reducing P inputs. However, N loading has increased dramatically in many watersheds, promoting blooms of non-N₂ fixers, and altering lake nutrient budgets and cycling characteristics. We examined this proliferating water quality problem in Lake Taihu, China’s 3rd largest freshwater lake. This shallow, hyper-eutrophic lake has changed from bloom-free to bloom-plagued conditions over the past 3 decades. Toxic Microcystis spp. blooms threaten the use of the lake for drinking water, fisheries and recreational purposes. Nutrient addition bioassays indicated that the lake shifts from P limitation in winter-spring to N limitation in cyanobacteria-dominated summer and fall months. Combined N and P additions led to maximum stimulation of growth. Despite summer N limitation and P availability, non-N₂ fixing blooms prevailed. Nitrogen cycling studies, combined with N input estimates, indicate that Microcystis thrives on both newly supplied and previously-loaded N sources to maintain its dominance. Denitrification did not relieve the lake of excessive N inputs. Results point to the need to reduce both N and P inputs for long-term eutrophication and cyanobacterial bloom control in this hyper-eutrophic system.     

Import-export balance of nitrogen and phosphorus in food, fodder and fertilizers in the Baltic Sea drainage area

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential elements for life, but in excess they contribute to aquatic eutrophication. The Baltic Sea is a brackish semi-enclosed sea that is heavily influenced by anthropogenic loading of nutrients, resulting in a major environmental problem, eutrophication. In this study, the nutrient balance of the food production and consumption system in seven countries in the Baltic Sea drainage area was quantified for the period 2002-2005. The food production and consumption system accumulates nutrients in the Baltic Sea drainage area, due to extensive imports to the system. The average annual net surplus of nutrients was 1 800 000 tons N and 320 000 tons P in 2002-2005, or annually 28 kg N and 5 kg P per capita. The average total annual import was 2 100 000 tons N and 340 000 tons P during 2002-2005. The largest imports to the system were fertilizers, totaling 1 700 000 tons N and 290 000 tons P. Traded nutrients in food and fodder amounted to a net annual surplus of 180 000 tons N and 25 000 tons P. The nutrient load to the Baltic Sea due to the food consumption and production system was 21% N and 6% P of the respective annual net inputs to the region. This study shows that large amounts of nutrients to Baltic Sea drainage area are inputs from outside the region, eventually contributing to eutrophication. To reduce the nutrient imports, fertilizers should be used more efficiently, nutrients should be recycled more efficiently inside the region, and food system should be guided toward low-nutrient intensive diets.     

Co-occurrence and potential chemical competition of phosphorus and silicon in lake sediment

Various chemical approaches were used to characterize P and Si in the surface sediment of Lake Vesijärvi, Southern Finland. The dynamic equilibrium between solid and solution P in aerobic and anaerobic sediment was investigated by means of desorption-sorption isotherms. The sediment material was rich in hydrated Al and Fe oxides and, accordingly, had a high P sorption capacity and a very low P concentration (5 μg l⁻¹) in the interstitial water under aerobic conditions. Approximately 25–30% of total P and almost 90% of total Si were bound in mineral lattices, i.e. in a stable form not participating in biological and chemical transformations. Organic P comprised about 20–25% of total P and was mainly in practically insoluble form not extractable by dilute base or acid. Phosphorus participating in sorption-desorption reactions was considered to originate from reserves bound on oxide surfaces. When the oxide bound P reserves were determined by fractionation analysis, a large amount of Si (corresponding to about 30% of biogenic reserves) was also dissolved. Anaerobiosis increased distinctly the occurrence of both elements in the interstitial water. These dissolution patterns suggest that P and Si are bound to the same components and, therefore, compete with each other for the sorption sites. This chemical competition, in turn, may be of importance in the nutrient exchange between solid and solution phase in sediment.     

Stratification and mixing in Lake Elsinore, California: an assessment of axial flow pumps for improving water quality in a shallow eutrophic lake

A 3-year study was conducted to quantify the effectiveness of a destratification system on weakening thermal stratification and increasing dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in Lake Elsinore, California. Biweekly measurements of temperature, DO, and other parameters were made at 14 sites across the lake beginning in July 2003. A destratification system consisting of 20 axial flow pumps fitted with 3 HP electric motors and 1.8m diameter impellers mounted 2m below the water surface was installed in the spring of 2004 and made fully operational in July 2004. An unusually wet winter of 2005 raised the summer mean depth from 3.0m in 2004 to 6.7 m in 2005. This study thus allowed us to quantify the influence of axial flow pump operation on water column properties under shallow water conditions (i.e., before and after axial flow pump installation), and also to compare the effectiveness of the destratification system at two strongly different lake levels. Transparencies increased substantially after the winter storms in 2005 and thermal stability was shown to be strongly dependent upon lake level. Stratification and a large area of anoxic sediments persisted despite pump operation in the summers of 2004 and 2005. Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) measurements showed that mixing energy was not being efficiently transmitted laterally into the water column.