Bridging psychology and biology: the analysis of individuals in groups.

Biological systems are particularly prone to variation, and the authors argue that such variation must be regarded as important data in its own right. The authors describe a method in which individual differences are studied within the framework of a general theory of the population as a whole and illustrate how this method can be used to address three types of issues: the nature of the mechanisms that give rise to a specific ability, such as mental imagery; the role of psychological or biological mediators of environmental challenges, such as the biological bases for differences in dispositional mood; and the existence of processes that have nonadditive effects with behavioral and physiological variables, such as factors that modulate the response to stress and its effects on the immune response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some history of a methodological rediscovery.

Comments on the article by S. M. Kosslyn et al (see record 2002-12932-001). The article extended to biopsychological research an important principle the authors traced to B. J. Underwood (1975): Systematic study of individual differences in a relationship between two or more dependent and independent variables can contribute greatly to the extension of psychological theory. R. R. Holt calls attention to several earlier discoveries of the same point. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The irony of cultural psychology research.

Responds to R. E. Erard's comments (see record 2009-13007-011) on the current authors' original article (see record 2008-12151-002) which reviewed a number of studies that identified cultural differences in the use and effect of different types of social support among Asians and Asian Americans and European Americans. Essentially, in his comment, Erard denied the validity of research examining cultural differences. The authors strongly believe that the issues concerning within-culture variation do not nullify the importance of conducting research on culturally based psychological and behavioral patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in beliefs about groups.

The current research examined individual differences in peoples' positive versus negative beliefs about groups. Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a 16-item Beliefs About Groups (BAG) scale. Factor analyses in Studies 1 and 2 identified and replicated a 4-factor solution, with factors reflecting preferences for group versus individual work, positive group performance beliefs, negative group performance beliefs, and beliefs that others will work hard on group tasks. Study 2 also provided evidence for convergent and divergent validity, and explored relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and group beliefs. Study 3 provided evidence for test–retest reliability. Across these 3 studies, the BAG scale had total score alphas ranging from .83 to .88. Implications of beliefs about groups for member motivation and group performance, as well as for future research and practice, are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching about animal research in psychology.

Responds to P. F. Cunningham's (see record 199604968-008) and S. D. Gosling's (see record 199604968-009) comments on M. Domjan and J. E. Purdy's (see record 1995-45383-001) study of the acknowledgment of contributions of animal experimentation in leading introductory psychology textbooks. The authors agree with Gosling that the primary goal of the general psychology course is to facilitate the students' understanding of psychology and that animal research is not presented in an educationally effective fashion in general psychology textbooks. However, it is argued that students need to know not only the conclusions of research but also something about how the research was conducted. In response to Cunningham's contention that psychology instructors will have to address why research animals are kept under stressful laboratory conditions, the authors note that psychology experiments typically do not involve deadly diseases or experimental pathologies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Milgram, stress research, and the Institutional Review Board.

Comments on a recent attempted replication of the Milgram studies (Burger, January 2009) (see record 2008-19206-001). Over the last 20 years when lecturing to undergraduates, the author found that the students consistently and vehemently denied that similar results would be obtained “today.” They would note how much more independent individuals are now, how authority is not valued to the same extent that it was in the past, and so forth. Of course in the 1960s experts said the same things. No one predicted what happened then, and he doubts that many would have predicted what Burger (2009) found now. The author's comments, with one exception, are directed toward broader issues of the research enterprise relevant to concerns touched off by Milgram and subsequent practices of institutional review boards (IRBs). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Novelty seeking and drug use: Contribution of an animal model.

Although sensation seeking or novelty seeking is a reliable predictor of drug use in humans, individual differences in free-choice novelty seeking in animal models have generally failed to predict drug use. In the current article, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used on data collected from a large sample of rats. Rats were screened on measures of inescapable and free-choice novelty tests and then were trained to lever press for sucrose or intravenous amphetamine. Although scores from the inescapable novelty test weakly predicted responding for amphetamine, the addition of free-choice novelty preference scores into the regression analyses significantly improved the predictive models. These results indicate that, similar to evidence in humans, individual differences in novelty seeking may be able to predict drug use in rats. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Entrepreneurship research and practice: A call to action for psychology.

Entrepreneurship is a major source of employment, economic growth, and innovation, promoting product and service quality, competition, and economic flexibility. It is also a mechanism by which many people enter the society's economic and social mainstream, aiding culture formation, population integration, and social mobility. This article aims to illuminate research opportunities for psychologists by exposing gaps in the entrepreneurship literature and describing how these gaps can be filled. A "call to action" is issued to psychologists to develop theory and undertake empirical research focusing on five key topic areas: the personality characteristics of entrepreneurs, the psychopathology of entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial cognition, entrepreneurship education, and international entrepreneurship. Methodological issues are discussed and recommendations provided. It is shown that psychologists can help identify the factors that influence new venture creation and success and inform the construction of public policy to facilitate entrepreneurship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological collectivism: A measurement validation and linkage to group member performance.

The 3 studies presented here introduce a new measure of the individual-difference form of collectivism. Psychological collectivism is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with the following 5 facets: preference for in-groups, reliance on in-groups, concern for in-groups, acceptance of in-group norms, and prioritization of in-group goals. Study 1 developed and tested the new measure in a sample of consultants. Study 2 cross-validated the measure using an alumni sample of a Southeastern university, assessing its convergent validity with other collectivism measures. Study 3 linked scores on the measure to 4 dimensions of group member performance (task performance, citizenship behavior, counterproductive behavior, and withdrawal behavior) in a computer software firm and assessed discriminant validity using the Big Five. The results of the studies support the construct validity of the measure and illustrate the potential value of collectivism as a predictor of group member performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of general systems and information theory in multi-factor individuality theory.

Concepts and principles from general systems and information theory are brought to bear on individuality theory. J. G. Miller's conceptual framework for the organism as a general system is singled out for special consideration in relation to the organism as viewed by individuality theory. Individuality theory involves mapping out the dimensions of individual differences in diverse domains (abilities, temperament, styles, values, interests, etc.), organizing the within domain and between-domain relationships into an integrated hierarchical structure, and attempting to explain the interaction and integration of the separate components. Systems and information theory are particularly potent in aiding the accomplishment of the latter two aspects. Thus, factor-identified dimensions of individual differences are viewed as information processors or mediators. Information flow occurs both within and between the sensory, cognitive, affective, style, evaluative, and motor systems, and the integration of the organism depends upon such systemic properties as hierarchical structure, hierarchy of values, steady states, and systems interactions. In this way an attempt is made to bridge three theoretical perspectives, cross-fertilizations of which may produce a vigorous offspring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bridging scientist and practitioner perspectives in clinical psychology.

Literature suggests that a complex and often hostile relationship exists between the science and practice of clinical psychology. Contributors to this conflict of viewpoints are reconsidered within the proposition that there are different roads to discovery and that there may be good reasons to keep the science and practice of clinical psychology somewhat separate. Results of a national survey of 325 psychologists are reviewed that support the view that psychological practitioners value research and consider their practices to be augmented by scientific findings. However, they are in need of vehicles of communication that will help them translate scientific findings into practice. Results suggest that practitioners do more to understand scientific findings than scientists do to understand the problems that face clinical practitioners. Ways to facilitate communication between and among these groups are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Individual differences, situational variables, and personality research": Erratum.

Reports an error in the original article by Irwin G. Sarason (Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1962, 65[6], 376-380; (see record 1964-10015-001). On page 379, the second line of Paragraph 1 should read: (p     

Bridging the theoretical and applied facets of environmental psychology.

Responds to K. H. Craik's (see record 84-10224) and R. B. Bechtel's (see record 84-10187) comments on D. Stokols's (see record 1996-13229-001) suggestion that the identity of environmental psychology has become more diffuse and transparent over the past 30 yrs. The contrast between Bechtel's emphasis on the applied contributions of environmental psychology and Craik's focus on its core theoretical concerns is noted. Their divergent characterizations of the field reflect its multidisciplinary roots and the diffuseness of its intellectual borders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Freudian theory and new information in modern psychology.

Freud's work is reviewed in light of five new areas of information that were not available to him. The five areas are: (a) anthropology's finding of the cultural nature of humanity; (b) empirical studies of the mother-infant affectional interaction and of the competence of infants; (c) the discovery of rapid eye movements (REM); (d) the role of emotions in social communication as well as individual arousal; and (e) the burgeoning of the psychology of sex differences, especially in cognitive style. The tension between Freud's clinical observations and his metapsychology is interpreted as a function, in part, of gaps in then existing knowledge. The review suggests that the concept of the cultural nature of humanity, with the attachment emotions of shame and guilt as part of human equipment, was implied in Freud's clinical observations and could have eased Freud's theoretical difficulties. As an example of the usefulness of this concept, the views of psychoanalysis and behavior theory about phobias are examined, showing that both approaches can profit from attention to the attachment emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-Individual Comparisons in Performance Evaluation: A Perspective From Prospect Theory.

This article examines how between-individual comparisons influence performance evaluations in rating tasks. The authors demonstrated a systematic change in the perceived difference across ratees as a result of changing the way performance information is expressed. Study 1 found that perceived performance difference between 2 individuals was greater when their objective performance levels were presented with small numbers (e.g., absence rates of 2% vs. 5%) than when they were presented with large numbers (e.g., attendance rates of 98% vs. 95%). Extending this finding to situations involving trade-offs between multiple performance attributes across ratees, Study 2 showed that the relative preference for 1 ratee over another actually reversed when the presentation format of the performance information changed. The authors draw upon prospect theory (D. Kahneman & A. Tversky, 1979; A. Tversky & D. Kahneman, 1981) to offer a theoretical framework describing the between-individual comparison aspect of performance evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An integrated course in biology and psychology.

"The problem of providing a broad and sound education in science for liberal arts students has led many colleges and universities to establish integrated science courses… . Within the last few years, an Integrated Course in Biology and Psychology has been developed at Wayne State University through the cooperation of the Departments of Biology and Psychology." Objectives of this course include providing: (a) an overview of basic biology and psychology, (b) knowledge of the scientific method, (c) an appreciation of these disciplines in our practical culture. Titles of some laboratory demonstrations are indicated, and 3 of these are briefly described. Themes developed are specified. The principal strength of the course is "integration" and its principal weakness, "lack of depth." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual and situational differences in desire for certainty.

The correlation was determined between Ss' extremity of response on several attitude and judgment instruments and scores on a test of desire for certainty. "Significant correlations were obtained between response extremity and test scores, suggesting that individual differences in desire for certainty are consistent from one measure to another." In another study it was shown that the strength of the desire for certainty can be increased and decreased by situational influences. 24 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clarifications with respect to psychology and phenomenology.

Comments on the article "Psychology and Phenomenology: A Clarification" by H. H. Kendler (see record 2005-05480-003). The comment author discusses the original article from three perspectives: the issue of subjectivity in phenomenology that he raised, the relevance of American phenomenological psychology to the topic to which Kendler oddly made no reference, and the promotion of and reservations about the "naturalization" of phenomenology in relation to psychology. Kendler advocated the "moral pluralism" of democracy. A similar position of advocacy for "methodological pluralism" is required (cf. Farber, 1967, p. 6). Recognition and respectful consideration of other methodologies in psychology advance the discipline and safeguard against intellectual parochialism and prejudice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental psychology of animal learning and now.

Reviews some of the theoretical conceptualizations resulting from the author's research in animal learning and motivation, and argues that these have important implications for an understanding of human behavior, particularly in an educational context. Specific topics are: micromolar theory (the thesis that speed is part of what is learned), incentive theory (the thesis that rewards and punishments affect behavior in a motivational manner), and the paired-avoidance paradox (the finding that 2 organisms may not behave as adaptively in an aversive situation as either organism does alone). It is concluded that the public's failure to embrace these and related principles reflects a fear of behavioral control, and that learning is especially important with respect to self-control, dignity, and conscience. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

E. L. Thorndike and the origins of animal psychology: On the nature of the animal in psychology.

E. L. Thorndike's deliberate use of the experimental method and rejection of anthropomorphism and anecdotalism place him squarely at the beginning of a century of animal research in psychology. The authors examine Thorndike's critique of the extant research of his day and the development of his methods, including the important way in which animals and children were often taken as interchangeable sources of data for the new functional psychology. Thorndike's research clearly altered the relationship between psychologist and animal, as is demonstrated by his own studies and those that were published in the decade that followed. The authors review this body of work in the early 20th century for (a) the manner in which it exchanges anthropomorphism for mechanicotheriomorphism and (b) its constitution of the animal as a conflation between organism and technology. The authors conclude by noting the importance of debates concerning anthropomorphism in psychology for the century-long question of consciousness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)