World-wide weathering of poly(vinyl chloride)

In order to determine the effect of outdoor aging in various areas of the world, poly(vinyl chloride), PVC, compositions were exposed at test sites in Australia, Canada, England, Germany, South Africa, and in Piscataway, New Jersey. These results are related to the climatological data from the different test sites. The data obtained show the effects of a three-year period of exposure on clear and filled, flexible and rigid PVC compositions. The merits of various types of additives are shown in respect to the outdoor aging properties of PVC compounds. It was observed that the exposure conditions vary from severe for Australia and South Africa to mild for England. However, the general results obtained throughout the world correlate well with those from the exposure site in New Jersey.     

The fire performance of PVC

The role of PVC in fires is currently a controversial topic because of the many negative comments made about PVC on the occurrence of any major fire disaster. Critics also use many small-scale smoke and toxic gas tests to define the role of PVC in these fires. The purposes of this paper are (1) to summarize the current technical knowledge of real fire behavior, (2) use this understanding to interpret available data for PVC in large- and small-scale fire tests, and (3) help bring a sense of technical realism to the issues involved.     

The generation of CO in bench-scale fire tests and the prediction for real-scale fires

Carbon monoxide (CO) is the single most important factor associated with deaths in fires; thus, predictions of CO developed in fires is an essential aspect of fire quantification. It is considered crucial to have correct CO prediction methods for post-flashover fire stages, since, in the United States at least, the majority of fire deaths are associated with fires which have gone to flashover. In this paper it is shown that the yiels of CO observed in real-scale fires are generally not related to either the chemical nature of the material being burned nor to the yield observed for the same material in bench-scale testing. Instead, the generation of CO in real-scale fires is determined largely according to the oxygen available for combustion, with thermal conditions of the fire plume also playing a significant role. This behavior is in sharp contrast to many other material fire properties, including yields of gases such as CO₂ and HCI, which can be predicated for real-scale fires from bench-scale results. Finally, results from various studies completed thus far indicate how effective prediction of real-scale CO yields may be accomplished. While bench-scale measurements are not necessary to predict real-scale CO, bench-scale toxic potency measurements can be in error if the CO component in them does not reflect on the real-scale CO yield. Thus, a method is developed whereby the bench-scale toxic potency measurements can be computationally corected to better approximate the toxic potencies measured in real-scale, post-flashover room fires. These techniques will, undobtedly, be further refined as additional experimental results become available.     

Testing products and materials for their contribution to flashover in rooms

The first part of the paper describes briefly the calculation of the rate of heat release required to cause flashover in a compartment. It is possible from theory to suggest that the thermal feedback which controls the supply of gaseous fuel from a given area of combustibles may be generally less important than that which controls the extension of the area, although eigher can cause the rapid transition of flashover in the absence of the other. In the second part of the paper some implications for the testing of products and linings are explored and some suggestions are made for the way in which test data can be used to predict the behaviour of fires in rooms. Suggestions are made for the way in which test data can be used to predict the behaviour of fires in rooms. Suggestions are made for the development of test having a more direct meaning, in terms of both hazard and quantitative theory.     

Estimating the impact of the mattress fire safety Standard 16 CFR Part 1633 on bed fire outcomes

Beds are a prevalent combustible in fatal fires in the United States effective 1 July 2007, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission promulgated a standard to severely reduce the heat release rate and the early heat output from mattresses and foundations when ignited by a flaming ignition source. This study estimates the Standard's success over its first decade using fire incidence, US population, and mattress sales data. The technique mitigates the influence of some exogenous factors that might have changed during this decade. The Standard is accomplishing its purpose, preventing approximately 65 fatalities (out of an estimated 95 fatalities in 2002‐2005) from bed fires annually during 2015‐2016, although not all pre‐Standard mattresses had yet been replaced. Compared to residential upholstered furniture fires, which were not affected by the Standard, the numbers of bed fires decreased by 12%, injuries by 34%, and deaths by 82% between 2005‐2006 and 2015‐2016. Per bed fire, injuries decreased by 25% and fatalities decreased by 67%, indicating that the severity of bed fires is being reduced.     

A simple model for estimating the nitrogen fertilizer requirement of a cereal crop

A static model that predicts the nitrogen (N) fertilizer requirement of grain sorghum or wheat crops is described. Inputs required by the model are soil nitrate-N (kg ha^–1) in the profile at sowing, total N (%) in the plough layer, available water in the profile at sowing (mm) plus rainfall during the growing season (mm). Output includes fertilizer N required for both maximum yield and optimum economic yield.The model was tested by using published field data from Nebraska and Kansas (U.S.A.), South Australia and Northern Territory (Australia), and Saskatchewan (Canada). The model was accurate when no fertilizer N was required, and when large amounts were required, but quantitative prediction of moderate requirements was only fair. Predictions for grain sorghum were better than for winter wheat, probably because total water use was a better predictor of yield potential for grain sorghum than for winter wheat. Further refinement for specific environments should make the model practical for dryland cereal crops.     

Is PVC in House Fires the Great Unknown Source of Dioxin?

An estimate of the annual generation of polychlorodibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/F) in the United States as a result of PVC burning in house fires is made using building data and fire loss statistics and soot and ash samples obtained from laboratory experiments and building fires involving PVC. Using conservative estimates for construction, fire involvement and formation, dioxin generation from PVC in house fires is estimated to be in the range of 0.074 to 8.6g TEQ yr⁻¹ as soot, 0.4 to 14g TEQ yr⁻¹ as ash, and thus 0.47 to 23g TEQ yr⁻¹ total. The maximum likelihood estimate is approximately 0.3g TEQ yr⁻¹ as soot and 1g TEQyr⁻¹ as ash. Any of these estimates constitutes a minuscule fraction of the 9300g annual air emissions or the 20000–50000g (TEQ) annual deposition from the air estimated by EPA.     

Membrane bioreactors: design & operational options

Professor A Fane and Sheng Chang, UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science & Technology, University of New South Wales, Australia, provide an introduction to membrane bioreactor [MBR] technology, focusing on design options & the factors that influence the performance of submerged MBRs.     

Flame lengths under ceilings

The evaluation of hazards from developing room fires often requires a knowledge of flame lengths developed by burning objects. Procedures for estimating flame lengths have been available only for vertical plume fires, where there is no flame impingement on the room ceiling. Calculational procedures are developed for approximate calculation of flame lengths when part of the flame flow is along the ceiling. Four common geometries are treated: unbounded ceiling, plume near corner, plume in corner and one-directional corridor spread. Ceiling flame lengths are calculated by use of the assumption that the total air entrained up to the flame tip is the same for ceiling flow as for the free fire. Comparison with limited experimental data suggests potential for prediction in full-scale room fires.     

The Influence of Growing Region, Cultivar and Harvest Timing on the Diversity of Australian Olive Oil

The quality indices and chemical composition of ten common olive cultivars grown in different regions of Australia were evaluated to determine the diversity of olive oils produced in Australia. Olives from trees from different environments including warmer climates in the north to colder climates in the south were sampled at two different stages of maturity over 2 years. The oil was extracted and standard methods were used to analyse the oil. Oleic acid content ranged from 83.4% in the Picual cultivar grown in Tasmania to 54.5% in Arbequina grown in northern New South Wales/southern Queensland. The Barnea cultivar, which is very commonly grown in Australia, was above 4% for campesterol content, regardless of the region in which it was grown. Parameters, such as palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and wax content were found to be significantly affected by growing region for some cultivars. This study shows the growing conditions for olive in Australia gives rise to a diverse range of olive oils.     

The ammonium nitrate explosion at West,Texas: A disaster that could have been avoided

On April 17, 2013, an explosion of ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizer stored at the West Fertilizer Company resulted in 15 deaths, 260 injuries, and the destruction of a sizable portion of the town. AN fertilizer is classified as an oxidizer, not as an explosive; nonetheless, it is a chemical which can detonate, and there is a century's worth of history of such explosions, some of them in manufacturing operations, but many in storage or transport. A review of incidents showed that 100% of AN fertilizer explosions in storage or transport had a single cause—an uncontrolled fire. Thus, AN fertilizer explosions in storage are preventable accidents, because technology to preclude uncontrollable fires also has been available for a century. In the case of transport accidents, uncontrolled fires may not be avoidable. However, technologies exist that can make AN less likely to explode, and to show greatly reduced explosion intensity, if driven to explosion. None of these safety measures were in place for this disaster. Details of necessary fire safety measures and the effectiveness and utility of existing regulations for AN are examined. This is important because most AN storage facilities in the United States are similarly inadequate in their fire safety.     

Correction of dietary fat availability estimates for wastage of food service deep-frying fats

Because of the renewed interest in the consumption of hydrogenated fats, reliable estimates of the dietary fat available to the United States population require correction for the considerable amount of deep-frying fats used in food service operations that are discarded after use and thus are not available for consumption. We estimated this fat wastage from food service sources from published data on fat exchange during cooking and on numbers of specific entrees purchased away from the home by United States households. Among food items considered, fat rendered from hamburgers and chicken contributed substantially to the total gross fat available for discard; fried chicken, french fries and doughnuts accounted for a large portion of total fat uptake by foods. To calculate waste frying fat, expressed as a percent of net waste fat, we subtracted fat uptake by foods from the total visible frying fat available for usage and from the level of gross fat available for discard. Dividing the resulting values gave a percent waste frying fat of 60%. For calculation of fat available for consumption, we recommend that contributions from deep-frying fats be reduced by 50% of the total available to correct for wastage. This value is conservative and representative of actual experience of major food service operations and agrees closely with estimates derived from spent grease recovery reported in the United States. Presented at the 1992 AOCS Annual Meeting, May 10–14, 1992, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.     

Toward an inventory of U.S. health care data bases

Because researchers have lacked convenient and comprehensive sources of information about data available to them from the health care data bases maintained by others in their field, many health care data collection activities are unnecessarily duplicative and many data bases have not been fully exploited. This paper presents the preliminary results of work by the Hospital Data Center of the American Hospital Association on an inventory of current (1976 to the present), nonbibliographic, computer-readable data bases containing national health care information that have been collected by organizations and agencies throughout the United States and that are, or can be, made available to outside researchers. The 30 public and private sector organizations identified as having such data bases are listed, together with the titles and main subject areas of their 112 data bases.     

Minerals in some Australian oil shales

The mineral composition of oil shales from three widely different ateas within Australia has been examined by X-ray diffractometry after low-temperature ashing. Quartz is more abundant than calcite. Feldspar is prominent in the Permian oil-rich shale from Glen Davis, New South Wales. Clay minerals are represented by smectite, illite, kaolinite and mixed-layer minerals (mostly mica-smectite). The content of clay minerals is generally low, except in the Tertiary oil shale from Rundle, Queensland.     

Furniture and furnishings in the home—some fire statistics

A statistical study of fires in the United Kingdom involving the ignition of furniture and furnishings is presented. This paper examines the data for one year (1970). The analysis shows that in fires starting in furniture and furnishings the chance of a fatality is over twice that in other domestic fires. The majority of furniture fires involve upholstery or bedding and over 90% were started by smokers' materials, electric appliances, space heating or as the result of the activities of children or suspected arsonists. Eighty-five percent of the fatalities were found in the room of origin of the fire. Eighty per cent were overcome by smoke or toxic gases. Sixty percent of the fatalities were either under 5 or over 65 years of age. Monetary values are assigned for damage, casualties and deaths in fire. These costs can be used to assess the value of fire precautions. With the values taken, the total losses in furniture fires in the home amounted to £19 million in 1970. Life loss accounted for the major part of this sum. The expected annual loss per dwelling as a result of the ignition of furniture is thus only about £1, and is only £3 for all dwelling fires. This low figure suggests an approach of either selective spending on those most at risk (the elderly and handicapped) or by government activity through publicity and education.     

Trends and differentials in dietary patterns and nutrient intake among migrant Puerto Rican families

Preoccupation to define the nutritional status of Puerto Rican families migrating to the United States, motivated the present research. A total of 526 families residing in the South Bronx, New York, and four communities in Puerto Rico, were therefore studied. Results in regard to nutrient intake suggest that the mothers' diets appear to be adequate in the South Bronx as well as in Puerto Rico, except in iron consumption, in the latter. Furthermore, the data show an apparent tendency to overconsumption of certain foods in both the South Bronx and Puerto Rico, particularly of the protein group, as well as a high consumption of sugar and carbonated beverages in Puerto Rico. Dietary data were corroborated through nutritional anthropometry, conforming a tendency for overweight and obesity among the women studied. Detailed information on the dietary changes occurred during the last five years, is provided. Educational programs such as EFNEP, availability of new foods, and the food preferences of children in their homes, seem to be influencing factors in the dynamics of food modifications within societal groups in transition.     

A new lipid from an australian marine sponge, Callyspongia sp

A specimen of the sponge Callyspongia sp. collected off the coast of New South Wales, Australia, has yielded the novel lipid (6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)-1,6,9,12,15-octadecapenten-3-one, together with (4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z)-4,7,10,13-hexadecatetraenoic acid.     

On the equivalent fire exposure

The equivalent fire exposure (EFE) is visualized as a quantifier of the destructive potential of real-world compartment fires in terms of the time to failure of building elements in standard test fires. Five methods of calculating the EFE are reviewed and compared in the light of some experimental data.     

Influence of Geographical Origins on the Physicochemical Properties of Hass Avocado Oil

A study was conducted to compare the physicochemical properties of Hass avocado oil from different geographical locations (Mexico, Australia, United States and New Zealand). Regardless of geographical origins, Hass avocado pulp was characterized by high lipid content (61.27–62.66%). Among Hass avocados of different origins examined, avocado oil of New Zealand origin exhibited the lowest saponification value. The L*, a* and b* values for avocados of New Zealand origin were higher than others, translating into the oil being the lightest in color and containing more red and yellow pigments. The predominant fatty acids in the Hass avocado oil were oleic (42.59–50.97%) and palmitic (20.61–25.63%) acids, whereas the predominant triacylglycerols (TAGs) were OOO (21.41–34.69%) and POO (19.65–24.68%), where O and P denote oleic and palmitic acids, respectively. The melting curves of Hass avocado oil displayed three endothermic peaks, whereas the crystallization curves displayed two endothermic peaks. Hass avocado oil of New Zealand origin contained a significant amount of natural pigments and unsaturated compounds (unsaturated fatty acids and tri-unsaturated TAGs) than Mexico, Australia and United States origins.     

Design of Light Steel-framed Walls for Fire Resistance

Light steel-frame building systems are becoming more prevalent in commercial, industrial and residential construction in New Zealand. Tested fire resistance ratings are generally available for non-load-bearing systems, but not for load-bearing applications. This study investigates the performance of load-bearing light steel-frame systems exposed to fire. Methods are presented for calculating the reduction of steel strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures, and for predicting the deflections resulting from temperature gradients and P-Δ effects. Heat transfer modelling by computer is used to predict steel framing temperatures for systems exposed to the standard ISO 834 time–temperature curve and real fires. Three full-scale furnace tests were carried out to evaluate analytical predictions. A design procedure is proposed.